FORESTRY IN 
MINNESOTA 

SAMUEL B. GRCeN 




Class __ ..^41 bli 
Book £i?l__ 



Gopyright}!" 



COPyPIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA 



BY 

SAMUEL B. GREEN, 

PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY, 
THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY 

SURVEY OF MINNESOTA. 



<6^ 



1902,.. 



ST. PACL, MIN.N.: 

PIONEER PRKSS COMPANY. 

1902. 



THF UIBBARY OF 
OON^RESS, 

r JO Copitx Received 

nJL 16 1902 

OnPVBIOHT ENTRY 



^Jy^. 



CI -ASS «yXXd. No. 

-2- 1 n 1 3 

COPY 8. 



Copyright, igo2, by Samuel B. Green. 



% 



J 



^- 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 



This book has been prepared especially for the classes in 
forestry in the School of Agriculture of the University of Min- 
nesota. It is really a compilation of the lectures and mimeo- 
graphed notes that I have found useful in my experience in 
teaching the elementary principles of forestry. The word for- 
estry is here used in the broad sense in which it is often used in 
this section and includes much that, strictly speaking, would 
come under several allied heads. In the use of botanical names 
I have followed, so far as possible, those given by Dr. George 
B. Sudworth in his ".'Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora 
of the United States," which has been adopted as the standard 
for the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. Oth- 
erwise the Index Kewensis has been followed. But where 
these names are different from those commonly used by horti- 
culturists in current literature the more familiar term is also 
generally given in brackets. 

I have received many kind suggestions and criticisms from 
Dr. Otto Lugger, St. Anthony Park; Hon. L. R. Moyer, Mon- 
tevideo; and Messrs. John S. Harris, La Crescent; Clarence 
Wedge, Albert Lea; F. H. Nutter, Minneapolis, and J. M. 
Underwood, Lake City. Professor Conway McMillan has fur- 
nished many specimens for drawings. My assistant, Mr. 
W'. A. Wheeler, has given much careful attention to the revi- 
sion of the manuscript and has corrected many errors that would 
otherwise have crept in. I am especially indebted to all these 
parties who have aided me in this work, and I wish to extend 
my sincere thanks for their interest and kindness. 

In the preparation of this book I have freely consulted the 
"Silva of North America" (Prof. C. S. Sargent); "Illustrated 



4 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 

Flora of the United vStates" (Britton & Brown); the publica- 
tions of the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agri- 
culture; "Bjiume und Straucher des Waldes" (Hempel & Wil- 
helm) ; and Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich u. d. Schweiz 
(Prof. Dr. Thome). 

S. B. G. 
University of Minnesota, 
St. Anthony Park, 
July 29, 1898. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



The first edition of lo.ooo copies of "Forestry in Minne- 
sota" was published by the Minnesota Forestry Association 
and has been received with much favor. It is now probably 
used in more than fourteen of the agricultural colleges as their 
chief text book on this important subject and it is also used in 
a number of normal and liigh schools in iliis and other states, 
either as a text book or as supplcnvjntary reading. The first 
edition is practically exhausted, but the demand for it continues 
to increase, and it is this demand, and the fact that it concerns 
a subject closely related to the development of this state, which 
has induced the Board of Regents to publish it as a portion 
of the report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of 
Minnesota. 

This edition covers all the ground reached by the first edi- 
tion, but it has been improved by the better classification and 
extension of the matter in Part I, and some additions and cor- 
rections to Part II. I think it greatly improved for the pur- 
poses of a text book, for which it is primarily intended. 

Since the publication of the first edition the world of science 
and especially the state of Minnesota have lost two helpful men 
in the death of Dr. Otto Lugger and J. S. Harris, each of whom 
assisted in preparing the first edition of '"Forestry in Minnesota." 
To me this is a personal bereavement, and I extend to their 
wives and children my most heartfelt sympathy and best wishes. 

In this revision I have had the loyal and painstaking help 
of my assistant, Mr. T. L. Duncan, and the chapter on Forest 
Mensuration has been almost entirely prepared by him. 

The drawings, with few exceptions, have been made under 
my direction by Miss M. M. Cheney. The half tone illustra- 
tions are mostly from photographs taken in the division of 
Horticulture and Forestry. Figure 32 is from a photograph 



6 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 

loaned by Professor John Gifford, Figure 9 is from H. B. Ayres, 
Figure 32 from W. H. Rba:. By permission of Houghton, Mif- 
flin & Co. the typical botanical figures of plates 14, 15, 21, 22, 
23, 24, 26, 31, 35, 43, 45, 49, 55 and 63 have been redrawn from 
the "Silva of North America." The typical botanical figures of 
plates I, 6, 7, TO, 20 and 25 are redrawn from "Baume und 
StrJiucher des Waldes." Plate 52 is redrawn from Flora von 
Deutschland, Oesterreich u. d. Schweiz. 

SAMUEL B. GREEN. 
January 30, 1902. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Chapter I. The Tree. 

Chapter II. The Forest. 

Chapter III. Forest Influences. 

Chapter IV. Tree Plantins^; on Prairies. 

Chapter V. Forest Regeneration and Treatment. 

Cliapter VI. Propagation. 

Chapter VII. Nursery Practice. 

Chapter VIII. Forest Protection. 

Chapter IX. Rate of Increase. 

Chapter X. Forest Mensuration. 

Chapter XL Forest Problems in Minnesota. 

Chapter XII. Wood and its Uses. 

Chapter XIII. Durability of Wood. 

Chapter XIV. Forest Economics. 

PART II. 

TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Pinacccc. Pine Family. 
Pines, Larches, Spruces. Hemlock, Douglas Spruce, Fir: 
ArborvitJe and Junipers. 

Jiiglandacca. Walnut Family. 
Walnut, Butternut and Hickories. 

SalicacccE. Willow Family. 
Willows and Poplars. 

Behilacccc. Birch Family. 
Birches, Alders, Hornbeam and Blue Beech. 

Fagacccc. Oak Family. 
Chestnut and Oaks. 



S ■ CONTENTS. 

« 

Ulmacece. ' Elm Family. 
Elms and Hackberry. 

Moracccc. Miilherry Family. 
IVInlbcrries. 

Rosacccc. Rose Family. 
Wild Crab, Mountain Ashes, Serviceberries, Thorns, Wild 
Plum and Wild Cherries. 

Lcguminoscc. Pea Family. 
Honey Locust, Coffeetree and Locust. 

Aceraccce. Maple Family. 
Maples and Boxelder. 

Hippocastanacccc. Buckeye Family. 
Horse Chestnut and Ohio Buckeye. 

Rhamnacca-. Buckthorn Family. 
Buckthorn. 

Tiliacccc. Linden Family. 
Basswoods. 

Elacagnacecc. Oleaster Family. 
Russian C)live. 

Olcacccc. Olive Family. 
Ashes. 

Bignoniacece. Bignonia Family. 
Catalpa. 

Caprifoliaeece. Honeysuckle Family. 
Sheepberry. 

PART III. 

FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

GLOSSARY. 
INDEX. 



PART 1. 

ELEMENTARY FORESTRY, 



CHAPTER I. 



THE TREE. 



A tree is a woody plant with a single stem more or less 
branched and taking on what is commonly known as the tree 
form. 

Tile most evident parts of a tree are roots, stem or trnnk, 
hranclics. l)nds. !ea\es. flowers, fruit and seed. 

The Stem, Branches and Roots are made up of inner 
bark, outer bark, sapwuod and heartwood. The outer bark, sap- 
wood and heartwood are 
made up of concentric circles 
w.^o oo/'' ••■/•^^^"^ ' termed annual rings. During 
, ^^.^^^^^^^^^f^°Qok....^ each period of growth two 
'^^■'^*^^\%:\\\\]iri^W^ new rings are formed — one 

nA\o°a oq^oV^oyo'c'r;:-"/ on the outside of the sapwood 

W^^&^s2SLMr?Ti^°n^ and another on the inside of 

the outer bark and as we sel- 
£°oj](Oo°o°%'(?' i dom have more than one sea- 
son of growth each year but 
one ring is formed on the 
wood in a year; so that by 
-;; counting the rings of wood 
in the stem we can determine 

Figure I. Cross-section of Woody ^^ry closely the age of trees. 
Stem -diagram showing (a) outer ]„ ygrv rare cases we have 
bark, (oi inner bark or bast, ic) cam- 
bium, ((/, f, /, e and //I annual rings two periods of growth in one 

of wood, and (/) pitli. • o i ^i 

' year, as in 1894. when the 

drouth of midsummer ripened up the wood of the trees by the 

first of August and the rains of autumn started a new growth, and 

caused some trees and shrubs to flower in October, but such 

occurrences are very uncommon and the extra rings formed 




12 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

are re?clily detected by their being smaller than adjoining rings 
and less distinctly defined. The age of trees could be told by 
the rings of the outer bark nearly as well as by those of the 
wood were it not for the fact that the outer layers of bark fall 
ofif as the tree grows older. 

In some experiments the bark of rapidly growing branches 
was peeled back in the spring for a few inches, the wood cov- 
ered with tin-foil and the bark replaced. At the end of the sea- 
son there was found a ring of wood outside of the tin-foil, thus 
showing where the annual growth of the tree was made. 

The Bark covers the whole exterior surface of the trunk, 
branches and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up 
of two parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark and 
the inner or live bark. These vary much in appearance and 
thickness on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the 
White Birch the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough, 
while on our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch 
or more in thickness and quite brittle. 

The Sapwood is the portion of the wood next to the bark. 
It varies much in thickness in different species and in trees of 
the same species; the most rapidly grown trees contain the 
largest amount. It is the most active portion of the wood in 
the growing tree, and contains considerable plant food and 
more water than the heartwood. 

The Heartwood is the wood in the center of the trunk and 
is generally distinguished from the sapwood by its more com- 
pact structure and darker color, though in some cases it may 
be lighter colored than the sapwood. It is also harder and 
more valuable for fuel, shrinks less in drying, and is more dura- 
ble in contact with the soil than the sapwood. There is very 
little movement of the sap in the heartwood. 

The Roots furnish water and nourishment that the plant 
receives from the soil, but only the young roots have the power 
of taking up the soil water; the older roots are most useful in 
holding the tree in place. It is common to classify roots into 
surface roots and tap roots, depending on their shape and the 
depth they go in the ground. Some trees have nearly all surface 
roots, as the Birch and Spruce, others have nearly all tap roots, 
■yvhich often go to a great depth on dry land, as those of the Bur 



THE TREE. 



13 



Oak, White Oak, Black Walnut and Butternut. Most of our 
trees have a combination of the two kinds, as the Maple, Hack- 
berry and Ash. Seedling trees of most kinds have a decided tap 
root when young, but in many species it ceases to grow down 
ward when a few years old. This is true of the Red and Scarlet 
Oaks, which often have a tap root extending four feet in depth 




Figure 2. Charactcri^tii K.i.it I ■ ■! inatioii. i )ii llu- Irtl twn ll.uklcrry. on 
the right two White Birch, each j-vear seedlings from .same .sceii bed. The 
first with a divided tap root, the second without tap root. 



before the tree has attained a corresponding height above 
ground, but after about five years large lateral roots develop and 
the growth of the tap root nearh^ ceases. 

Root growth is relatively less to the extent of ground occu- 
pied in moist and fertile soil than in dry and poor soil, but the 
roots are proportionately more branched. In wet seasons the 
root development is less for a given plant than in dry seasons, 
because the roots may get their needed food and water from a 
small area. Nursery trees grown on moist rich land have a 
more compact root system than those grown on poor land. 

At the Minnesota Experiment Station a small Bur Oak 
growing on dry, gravelly soil had a tap root that was evidently 
20 feet long, while on moist fertile clay land in the same section 
such trees probably seldom have tap roots more than six feet 
long. 

Buds are placed regularly on the young branches and are 



14 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

said to be either alternate or opposite. When they occur on the 
stump or on roots they are not arranged in any regular order. 
There are two kinds of buds — flower buds, which develop into 
filowers and fruit; and leaf buds, which develop into leaves and 
branches. These can generally be distinguished from each 
other by their shape and size and by cutting through them and 
noting their construction. Flower buds are generally more lia- 
ble to injury from climatic changes than leaf buds. 

The I/Caves of our trees vary much in size and shape. They 
are simple when composed of but one piece, as the leaves of 
the Oak, Maple and Birch, and compound when composed of 
more than one piece, as the leaves of the Locust, Ash and Black 
Walnut. Leaves are made up of a framework filled in with 
cellular tissue and covered with a thin skin. This skin has very 
many small pores in it called stomata, through which the plant 
takes in carbon dioxide from the air and gives of¥ oxygen and 
water. 

All our trees shed at least a part of their leaves each year. 
All the broad-leaved trees and the Tamarack shed their entire 
foliage yearly, while our so-called evergreen trees lose a part 
of their leaves each year. The length of time leaves remain on 
this latter class of trees varies from two or three years, in the 
case of White Pine growing in very severe locations in this 
section, to perhaps eight years, in the case of Red Cedar favora- 
bly located. The time that leaves remain on the branches of 
evergreens depends to some, extent on the location and age of 
the individual tree. 

The following table gives the approximate length of time 
ih:il .leaves of conifers remain on trees in Minnesota: 



THE TREE. 



15 



LKNC.TH OF TIME THAT I^EAVES OF CONIFERS REMAIN ON 
TREES IN MINNESOTA. 



Botanical Name. 

/'inns shobus 

Pin us flexilis 

Pin IIS rest'nosa 

Piuus divarica/a 

I'inus pondeiosa scopiiloi iiiii 

Phi us syh/estris 

/'inns laricio aus/riaca 

I'inus montana pumila 

/.mix laricina 

/.arix europea 

/'iiea canadensis 

J'icea niai iana . 

Picea pungens 

Picea engelma nni 

Picea excelsa 

Tsuga canadensis 

Pseudolsuga laxifolia 

Abies balsaniea 

A bies concolor 

Tltuja occidenlalis 

Juniper us virginiana 

Juniper us cum munis 



Common Name. 

White Pine 

Western White Pine 

Norway Pine 

Jack Pine 

Hull Pine 

Scotch Pine 

Austrian Pine 

Dwarf Pine 

Tamarack 

European I<arch .... 

White Spruce 

Bl^ck Spruce 

Blue Spruce 

Engelmann Spruce . 

Norway Spruct 

Hemlock 

Douglas Spruce 

Balsam Fir 

White Fir 

Arborvita; 

Red Cedar 

Dwarf Juniper 



Year of Falling. 



2d and 3d. 

3th and 6th. 

4th and 5th. 

2d and 3d. 

3d and 4th. 

od. 

4th and 5th. 

5th, 6th and 7th. 

ist winter. 

1st winter. 

4th and 5th. 

4th and 5th. 

6th and 7th. 

5th and 6th. 

.Sth. 

2d and 3d. 

5lli. 

5th. 

5th. 

4th and 5th. 

5th and 6th. 

5th and 6th. 



Flowers arc parts of the plant especially modified for the 
reproduction of 'the plant by seed. Both sexual organs may 
be located together in the same flower, as those of the Bass- 
wood, Mountain Ash and Cherry; or in separate flowers on 
the same plant, as those of the Birch, Oak and Black Walnut; 
or they may be separate on entirely dififerent plants, as in the 
Willow, Poplar, Boxelder and Ash. 



16 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

The Fruit, botanically defined, is the seed-containing area, 
derived from a single flower. As used in nursery practice the 
term is generally applied to seeds having a fleshy covering or 
an adjoining fleshy part. 

The Seed, botanically defined, is the ripened ovule, but as 
the term is used in nursery practice it often includes the ovary 
and other parts that may be attached to it. What is commonly 
called the seed of Maple, Ash, Elm, Walnut and Basswood is 
really the fruit. 

Distribution of Seeds. The seeds of plants are distributed 
in \-arious ways, the most common of which are (i) by means 
of floats or wings which buoy the seeds up in the air or water, 
and (2) by animals. The seeds of Ash, Arborvitre, Boxelder, 
Catalpa, Elm, Maple, Pine and Spruce have wings which allow 
them to be blown great distances by the wind, especially when 
they break loose from the upper branches of high trees during 
severe winds. The seeds of the Honey Locust are not shed 
from the pod until after it has fallen, and as the pod is ten 
inches or more long and spirally twisted it may be blown long 
distances on level ground or snow crust. The seeds of the pop- 
lars and willows have a cottony float attachment which buoys 
them up in the air. In the case of the Basswood, the parachute- 
like bract attached to the seed cluster aids in spreading the seeds 
by carrying them through the air or along the snow crust. The 
seeds of Mountain Ash, Wild Black Cherry, Hawthorn and oth- 
ers are largely distributed by wild animals which eat the fruit 
and allow the seeds to pass through the alimentary canal unin- 
jured or carry oft' the fruit and spit out the seeds. Many seeds 
or seed vessels have bur-like or sticky coats by which they 
adhere to animals and are thus carried considerable distances. 
Very often bodies of water aid in the distribution of seeds, since 
all that are spread by the agency of the wind and most of those 
that have fleshy coverings will float on the surface of the water 
and may in this way be scattered. 

Shapes of Trees. Dififerent species of trees naturally 
develop dilTerent shapes. Some, like Spruces, Tamarack and 
Balsam, have a decided tendency to form a strong stem and to 
take on a conical form in preference to the development of a 
crown or head; while others, like the Basswood, Oaks, Maples 
and Boxelder. develop their crown in preference to their stem. 



THE TREE. 17 

The actual shape of trees depends on the space they have to 
f^row in, on the soil, situation, and on the age of the trees. 
Where trees have plenty of room to grow, and their natural 
development is not interfered with, their individual character- 
istics arc most apparent. 

TREE GROWTH. 

Assimilation. Plants are made up of various tissues and 
these are formed of numerous cells. The material of which the 
cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is derived 
from the carbon dioxide of the air which enters into the leaves 
and under the action of light, air and water is there decom- 
posed; the oxygen is given of¥ and the carbon is retained, and, 
combined with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, 
sugar, gum and other plant foods. 

This process of food making is called assimilation and can 
be carried on only in the green parts of the plant, and in these 
only when exposed to light and air. Hence, foliage, air and 
light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth, and, 
other conditions being favorable, the greater quantity and bet- 
ter development of foliage and the more light this foliage has 
at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the tree 
grow. 

In general, therefore, the growth of wood may be reduced 
either by the removal of foliage, which reduces the working 
surface, or by shading, which somewhat checks the activity of 
the foliage by hindering light action. 

Transpiration. The flow of sap in trees is not well under- 
stood. In a general way it may be said that the sapwood trans- 
mits the water from the roots to the leaves, where a part enters 
into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant, and the 
remainder, which is by far the greater part, passes ofi as vapor. 
The amount thus transpired varies greatly with the species, age 
of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of light at its 
dispO;>al. climatic conditions and. the condition of tree growth. 
The amount of water transpired is so large in comparison to 
the amonnt retained in the tree that while an acre of forest may 
store in its trees i,oco pounds of carbon, 15 or 20 pounds of 
mineral substances and 5.000 pounds of water in a year, it may 
9 



18 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

have taken from the soil and given off to the air from 500,000 to 
1,500,000 pounds of water, or from one-quarter to one-half as 
much as agricultural crops. It has been estimated that the 
leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to one-third as 
much water as an equal surface of water. Large deciduous 
trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water a day 
in dry summer weather. Coniferous trees transpire much less 
water than most deciduous trees, frequently not over one-sixth 
as much. 

Mineral Substances are taken up in small quantities and 
consist mostly of lime, magnesia and potash. They are carried 
to the leaves, where they are used (perhaps also on their passage 
through the tree), with a part of the water, in food preparation. 
The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains as 
the water transpires in the leaves and young twigs, and is 
returned to the soil when the leaves are shed, and when the 
tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus. 

The Soil of Woodlands is Improved from year to year if 
the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground and 
fire is kept out, since the mineral matters taken up by the tree 
are largely returned to the soil in a more soluble form and the 
amount of humus is increased. For this reason there is little 
need of alternating woodland crops. 

Almost any soil can furnish a sufficient quantity of mineral 
substances for the production of a crop of trees, provided it is 
moist and the leaf mould is not removed. Good soils will con- 
tinue to furnish mineral matter in sufficient quantity, even if a 
portion ot the leaf mould is carried away. If, however, this 
removal is continued annually for a long period, any but exceed- 
ingly fertile soils are likely to become exhausted, just as land 
on which field crops are grown cannot produce crops forever 
without manuring. 

The Yearly Round of I/ife in a Tree. In the spring the 
tree starts into growth and feeds on the plant food stored up 
the preceding year; the leaves unfold and commence furnishing 
plant food. These two sources of food push the growth along 
very rapidly in the spring and early summer. By the first of 
July the food stored up the previous season is exhausted in 
many trees, and growth is entirely dependent upon the food fur- 



TREE GROWTH. 19 

nisherJ by the leaves. The growth at this time is generally 
much slower than in the spring, and as the capacity of the tree 
for building up plant food increases it commences to store up 
starch, sugar and other foods in its cells with which to start 
growth the following spring, and the cell walls become thicker 
and firmer. This maturing of the tree is termed the ripening 
of the wood, and when completed the tree is ready for winter. 
Our hardiest trees generally ripen their wood early in the 
autumn and then cease growing, although probably some food 
is being stored up so long, as the leaves remain green on the 
trees. 

Rest Period of Plants. With very few exceptions all plants 
require an occasional rest period for their best development. 
Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by being 
frozen. And even when plants are kept under growing condi- 
tions the year round they have periods of rest and of excite- 
ment. During the rest period the plants undergo very few 
changes, and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during mild 
weather in winter, and, as evaporation must be going on most 
of the time from twigs and buds, water must lie supplied from 
the roots. 

The Amount of Water lyost by Trees in Winter. After 
many careful experiments, .A.. L. Knisely, M. S., concludes that 
a Soft Maple standing 30 or 35 feet high with a trunk 15 to 18 
inches in diameter near the ground, exposing from 750 to 800 
square feet of bark surface, may lose daily by evaporation from 
6 to 7 pounds of water when dormant. An apple tree 30 years 
old and 15 inches in diameter at the base, exposing from 800 
to 1,000 square feet of bark surface, may lose daily while dormant 
from 10 to 13 pounds of water. These figures are from results 
obtained during winter weather in New York, where the relative 
humidity of the air is higher than in Minnesota, which would 
lessen evaporation. It is probable that during our winters here 
the evaporation from trees will greatly exceed that in New 
York, and that greater evaporation is nearly always responsible 
for some trees being tender here and hardy in New York and 
other places with similar conditions. 

We know that in this section after a prolonged period of 
severely cold weather, tlie twigs of Soft Maple. Apple and some 



20 ELEMENTARY FOREvSTRY. 

other trees have a decidedly shrivelled appearance, which disap- 
pears after a few days of mild weather. Soft Maple trees stand- 
ing on dry land will sometimes in the spring appear to have been 
dried out and to have become partly or entirely dead. It is 
probable that during our coldest weather very little, if any, 
nToisture can be suppl'ed from the roots, which may account for 
this shrivelled conditicm. 

Second Growth. Sometimes warm, moist weather in late 
autumn will cause trees to start a strong second growth in 
October, which draws on the stored plant food and perhaps 
exhausts it, and winter sets in before the tissues have again 
become hard and stored with food. In such cases trees are 
liable to injury. No characteristic of hardiness is more impor- 
tant in plants than that of early maturity of wood. 

One part of the tree may start into growth without regard 
to the conditions of the other parts. For instance, a branch 
brought into a warm room in winter without severing it from 
the tree will grow for some time. Sun scald is probably due 
to the bark on the side most exposed to the sun starting into 
growth very early, after which a sudden freeze destroys the 
young cellular tissue. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE FOREST. 

Forest is a Term variously applied in this country. As here 

used it applies to all collections of trees except such as are 

grown for fruit. It may, then, apply to a piece of land on which 

seedlings have only recently been planted, or to what is termed 

*l)rush land, or to land heavily stocked with trees. 

TREE GROWTH AFFECTED BY LIGHT CONDITIONS. 

So Important is Sunlight to the Growth of Trees that it 
is son-.ctinK's said to be the purpose of trees to convert sunlight 
into wood. Practically all trees make their most rapid growth 
in full sunlight There is. however, quite a difference in the 
power of various trees to get along with small amounts of direct 
sunlight. It is the object of good forestry to grow as much 
good timber as possible upon the land, just as good agriculture 
consists in growing the largest amount of farm crops upon the 
land. An acre of land covered with trees of the same species, 
it is estimated, will lay on the same amount of woody fibre 
whether the stems are large or small, the amount of wood 
formed each year being in direct ratio to the amount of foliage 
covering the land that is in good active condition. 

It is known that some trees will do very well in the shade 
of other trees. This gives a chance to grow trees in a sort of 
two-storied fashion, having the land nearly covered with the 
foliage of one set of trees which require the full exposure to 
sunlight, and underneath the land covered with the foliage of 
trees which will endure the shade of those above them, just as 
pumpkins can be grown under corn. On account of this 
peculiarity of trees, foresters have divided them into two 
classes, one of which is called light demanding and the 



22 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

other shade enduring. The words tolerant and intol- 
erant are also used as distinguishing the peculiarity of trees in 
this respect, and they are perhnps better terms. Trees that are 
known as tolerant generally have a thicker mass of foliage 
than those that are intolerant of shade. This simply means 
that their lower leaves ran withstand the shade of their upper 
leaves. While it is not an absolute rule that tolerant species 
have a thick mass of foliage and intolerant trees open foliage, 
yet it is so generally true that where the characteristics of a 
tree are known it serves as a very reliable indication. Most 
trees are much more tolerant of shade when young than when 
old. Among our tplerant trees may be mentioned the Spruce, 
Oak, Balsam, White Cedar, Red Cedar, Hornbeam and Hard 
Maple. Among our intolerant species are Poplars, Cotton- 
wood. Willows, Soft Maple and Birch. Of our native pines, 
the White Pine is much more tolerant than either the Jack or 
the Norway Pine, which are quite intolerant of shade and soon 
succumb if they are protected from the full sunlight. 

Trees Protect One Another and are Mutually Helpful, 
and many trees that are quite hardy on the limits of their 
growth when grown in groups, will fail if grown singly, as for 
instance the Hard Maple in exposed parts of Minnesota. Trees 
also interfere with one another and struggle for light and soil 
conditions, and the weaker trees are destroyed. So true is this 
that where the land is thickly seeded with even-aged trees, they 
may all become weak and sickly because of hindering one 
another. On the other hand, this crowding of trees forces them 
to take on an upward growth and kills out the lower branches. 
Trees growing under such conditions make long timber free 
from knots, which is therefore most valuable. 



SOIL CONDITIONS. 

Water Supply. Water is the most important element in 
soils for tree growth, and the greatest attention must be given 
to its conservation and distribution through the soil. Trees 
do not grow to best advantage in very wet or in very dry soil, 
although some can live and almost thrive under such unfavora- 
ble conditions. There is very little land, except in the arid 



SOIL CONDITIONS. 23 

region, but tliat will support some form of tree growth. The 
soil best adapted to all kinds of trees is one that is moderately 
but evenly moist, porous, deep and well drained; yet with a 
subsoil compact enough to transmit the subsoil water from 
below upwards without its being so solid that it cannot be easily 
penetrated by the roots. It does not matter about its being 
stony if it has these qualities. On land that is very wet in 
this section, as the muskegs of northern Minnesota, which are 
covered with Tamarack and Spruce, the trees never get to be 
of large size. In the case of one Spruce grown on such land, Tz 
years was occupied in growing a tree i^ inches in diameter, 
and a Tamarack under similar conditions formed a diameter of 
only I i-io inches in 48 years. We also find that growth is 
extremely slow on very dry land. On very open porous land 
the water sinks quickly out of reach of the roots, and where the 
soil is too compact it cannot be penetrated by the water or by 
the roots, so that on such soils trees generally suffer for moisture 
a part of the year. 

Relation Between Trees and Soils. The growth of trees 
and the kinds growing on land are good though not infallible 
indexes to the value of the soil for agricultural purposes. For 
instance, land on which Black Walnut, Hard Maple, Hackberry 
or Hickory grow to large size is of good quality for grasses, 
grains and other agricultural crops, while Black Oak is gener- 
ally abundant on dry, gravelly ridges and sandy soil. Where 
White Pine in this section is the prevailing tree the land is gen- 
erally of good quality. Norway Pine will endure more drouth 
than the White Pine, outgrows it, and becomes the prevailing 
tree on drier land, while the Jack Pine is the most abundant on 
the very dry sandy lands of Northern Minnesota. In the more 
humid climate of the eastern states the White Pine grows on 
\cry sandy soils. 

Mechanical Condition of Land in Forests. The agri- 
culturist aims to keep the soil porous, yet moderately compact, 
that the roots may penetrate it easily and the subsoil waters 
may be readily transmitted upwards to the roots of plants. He 
aims to prevent the soil from becoming too compact and from 
the loss of water from evaporation by cultivating the surface 
soil, and to keep out standing water by drainage. The forest 



24 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

grower cannot rely upon such methods, because they are too 
expensive or entirely impracticable. He may indeed plow for 
his first planting and cultivate the young trees, but after a few 
years cultivation will become impossible and the effects of the 
first preparation will be lost. He must therefore attain his 
object in another way, that is, by mulching the soil. The 
shading is done at first by planting very closely, so that the 
ground may be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind. 
The shade should be maintained well throughout the life of the 
tree, even if more planting is necessary to accomplish it, and if 
in later life the trees get thin in the tops or die out, it may 
become necessary to plant underbrush to protect the land. 

Undergrowth in Forests may be rather injurious in pre- 
venting the proper development of young trees, but it is gen- 
erally very beneficial in retarding evaporation from the surface 
soil, in retaining the snow in the spring and in killing out grass 
and weeds. 

Forest Floor is a term used to indicate the mulch on the 
ground in forests. This is made up of the fallen twigs and 
leaves which remain on the ground, where they slowly decay 
and form a cover of rich mould or humus. This protective 
covering serves a most useful purpose: it permits the rain and 
snow waters to penetrate the soil without at the same time mak- 
ing it too compact, thus keeping the soil granular so that the 
air can enter, and in the best condition for conducting water, 
while at the same time it prevents washing away of the land and 
too rapid or excessive evaporation from the surface; the humus 
is also an active agent in aiding decomposition of the mineral 
substances in the soil. 

Subsoil. Tree growth is less dependent on the condition of 
the surface soil and more dependent on the subsoil than is the 
growth of agricultural crops. For instance, in the case of drift- 
ing sand overlying a moist subsoil, it has been found that where 
pains are taken to get the young trees started they will often 
do well although such land is poorly adapted to agricultural 
crops. There arc many acres of land in''Minnesota and Wis- 
consin that have such conditions, and they should seldom be 
entirely cleared of trees. 

Washing of Soils. The soils most likely to wash badly 



SOIL CONDITIONS. 25 

are those that are fine grained without much adhesive power, 
such as fine sand and some kinds of clays. When, however, 
such soils have a forest growth on them they are protected from 
washing by the forest floor, tree roots and the humus in the 
soil. Soil which contains large quantities of humus does not 
wash much, since the particles of organic matter bind it 
together; thus we find that newly-cleared timber land which 
contains large amounts of humus may not wash much for a 
number of years after the clearing, and then commence to wash 
very badly. The washing away then is due to the humus hav- 
ing become used up and there being nothing left to bind the soil 
particles together. In such cases the application of organic 
matter will help very materially. For this purpose manure, 
straw or other material may be applied, or crops like clover and 
the grasses, which leave considerable organic matter, may be 
grown on the land. Crops that leave very little humus in the 
ground, such as nursery stock, which is dug out by the roots, 
are most harmful in exhausting the humus in the soil, and land 
used for this purpose needs heavy manuring with stable manure 
and an occasional seeding down to grass or clover. 

Alkali Soils. In the prairie portions and occasionally 
elsewhere in this section, we have a kind of soil in which there 
is a superabundance of carbonate and sulphate of soda. This 
kind of soil seldom extends over large areas and generally 
occurs in places lower than the surrounding land. In some 
places the alkali occurs in such abundance as to coat the surface 
of the soil with a white crust. On such land very few agricul- 
tural crops or trees grow well. The leaves of the trees growing 
there generally take on a yellowish color and the wood does 
not mature well in the autumn. Such land should be drained so 
that the surface water at least can run ofT. In this way the 
alkali can generally be washed out in a few years. It is seldom 
advisable to plant trees on these places, but if this seems desira- 
ble, as is sometimes the case on prairies, the best trees to plant 
are probably the Cottonwood and White Willow. 



20 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



EFFECT OF SLOPE AND ASPECT ON TREE GROWTH. 

The slope of the land affords drainage and so affects the 
growth of trees, but trees will grow on any slope, even on 
precipices, if they can frnd room for their roots and the soil is 
somewhat moist. The direction of the slope usually has a very 
marked effect on the growth of vegetation. This is especially 
the case where high ranges of hills and other local conditions 
modify the climate. 

A Northern Slope receives no full sunlight; the sun's rays 
fall obliquely in the morning or toward evening, according to 
the angle of elevation. The winds it receives in winter are 
colder than those received by the southern slope, but the few 
winds which strike it during the growing season are not strong, 
hot or very dry. As the vegetation is a little delayed on a 
northern slope, there is less danger from late spring frosts than 
on a sunnier aspect, and, as the snow melts slowly, there is a 
better chance for its waters to soak into the ground. In con- 
sequence of these facts trees are less liable to suffer from drouth 
on the same kind of land with a northern than with a southern 
exposure. The trees keep a more regular form and growth is 
more uniform and certain. It will generally be found that 
where timber is cut off from a northern slope growth renews 
itself very quickly, for tree seeds are most likely to grow undei 
the conditions found there. 

An i^astern Slope receives the sun in the cool morning 
hours when the temperature and light are moderate. It is not 
exposed to our hot, dry winds nor to the intense heat of the 
sun. The soil retains its moisture fairly well and trees make a 
good growth. For trees it ranks next in value to a northern 
slope. 

A Southern Slope receives the most direct rays of the sun, 
and the full force of our hot, dry winds and beating rains 
during the growing season. Consequently vegetation is more 
liable to injury by late spring frosts, because of starting earlier 
in the spring, than in any other location. The soil is most 
liable to erosion from beating summer rains and dries up most 
quickly after the spring rains. The trees grow irregular in 
form, the seeds seldom start well on southern or western slopes, 



ASPECT. 27 

and when once cleared tree growth is often difficult to renew. 
As proof of the importance of these conditions as afifecting trei: 
growth we have the commonly observed fact that the south 
and west sides of steep hills and mountains are more likely to 
be bare than any others. This can be very plainly seen on the 
bluflfs along the Mississippi River in Minnesota. 

A "Western Slope receives the sun's rays obliquely, but in 
the warmest part of the day, and in this section gets the full 
force of our hot dry southwest winds. The effect of such an 
exposure on growth is about the same as the southern slope. 



CHAPTER III. 

FOREST INFLUENCES. 

Upon careful observation it will be found that a single large 
spreading tree growing in an open field appreciably affect? 
climatic and soil conditions in the following ways: 

(I.) During the day flic ground under a tree is protected from 
the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil not protected. 
As a result of this protection, the air under the tree is cooler 
than the air in the open, and, as it is constantly in circulation, 
tends to cool the air in the immediate vicinity of the tree on 
sunny days. 

(2.) At night a tree retards the radiation of heat from the 
ground under it. This tends to equalize the temperature of not 
only the soil and air under the tree, but that in the near 
vicinity. Therefore, though a tree may reduce the temperature 
of the soil and air on sunny days or during a short period of 
warm weather, it may, on the other hand, increase the temper- 
ature at night or during a short period of cool weather. For 
example it may be noticed that vegetables growing near trees 
are frequently uninjured by autumn frosts wjiich destroy those 
growing in the open. 

(3.) A tree aids in retaining zvatcr in flic surface soil to the 
leeward by breaking the force of the wind, and thus retarding 
evaporation, for it is known that evaporation increases with the 
rapidity of the air currents. It retains the water in the surface 
soil under the tree by shading the soil and thus retarding evap- 
oration. The large amount of water which is transpired by a 
tree is largely drawn from the subsoil, and this increases the 
humidity of the surrounding air without drawing on the water 
of the surface soil. But some kinds of trees take up so much 
of the water from the soil as to preclude the growing of crops 
in such places near them. 



FOREST INFLUENCES. 20 

(4.) The leaves thai fall to the ground form a mulch whicli pre- 
vents the drying out of the soil.. They check the flow of water 
over the land, thus preventing the washing away or compacting 
of the soil by heavy rains, and giving the water a better chance 
to soak into the ground. 

(5.) A tree /protects from the destructive force of severe winds. 
\ single tree or group of trees may seem to have little effect 
on tornadoes, but large groups of trees may possibly prevent 
their formation or greatly' lessen their violence. Protection 
from severe winds may greatly afifect the growing of plants, 
since on account of the winds many plants that may be suc- 
cessfully grown when protected by shelter belts cannot be 
grown on the open prairie. This protection, when present, 
serves to lessen the fuel necessary to warm dwelling houses and 
also lessens the food eaten by animals. It also keeps the surface 
soil in fields from being blown away. 

In these five principal ways a single tree affects the condi- 
tions of climate and soil in its immediate vicinity. To be sure, 
some of them are not so very evident where a single tree grows 
in an open field, but where trees are growing in groups or on 
large tracts of land all of these factors are important in modify- 
ing climate and soil conditions, and will be referred to at greater 
length. 

INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON WATER SUPPLIES. 

It is very evident that the proper disposition of water upon 
tlic hind is the most important factor in the growing of crops, 
and it is equally evident that nature's changeful and wasteful 
ways of supplying water to crops are not the best ways of so 
doing, for we know that not only in the arid regions, but in gen- 
eral wherever. irrigation is used, crops are produced in greatest 
abundance and certainty. This once recognized, then the proper 
distribution of the available water supplies becomes a question 
of immediate interest. Human effort can, to a limited extent, 
direct the laws of nature that influence climate and soil condi- 
tions, and it becomes necessary that we have a clear understand- 
ing of the forces that are at work in nature in order that we may 
know where we may or may not expect to be successful in 
directing them. In order that we may better understand this 



30 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

subject, I quote the following extract on forest influences from 
the report of the Forestry Division of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture for i88q, with a few changes in the nature of abbre- 
viations: 

"The water capital of the earth may be regarded as consist- 
ing of two parts, the fixed capital and the circulating capital. 
The first is represented not only in the waters on the earth but 
also by that amount of water which remains suspended in the 
atmosphere, being part of the original atmospheric water-masses 
which, after the rest had fallen to the cooled earth, remained in 
suspension and is never precipitated. 

"The circulating water capital is that part which is evap- 
orated from water surfaces, from the soil, from vegetation, and 
which, after having temporarily been held by the atmosphere in 
quantities locally varying according to the variations in tem- 
perature, is returned again to the earth by precipitation in the 
form of rain, snow and dew. There it is evaporated again, either 
immediately or after having percolated through the soil and 
been retained for a shorter or longer time before being returned 
to the surface, or, without such percolation, it runs through 
open channels to the rivers and seas, continually returning in 
part into the atmosphere by evaporation. Practically, then, the 
total amount of water capital remains constant; only one part 
of it — the circulating capital — changes in varying quantities its 
location, and is of interest to us more with reference to its local 
distribution and the channels by which it becomes available for 
human use and vegetation than with reference to its practically 
unchanged total quantity. 

"As to the amount of this circulating water capital we have 
no knowledge; hardly an approximate estimate of the amount 
circulating in any given locality is possible with our present 
means of measurement; for it appears that so unevenly is the 
precipitation distributed that two rain gauges almost side by 
side will indicate varying amounts, and much of the moisture 
which is condensed and precipitated in dews escapes our obser- 
vation, or at least our measurements, entirely. Thus it occurs 
that while the amount of water calculated to be discharged 
annually by the river Rhone into the sea appears to correspond 
to a rainfall of 44 inches, the records give only a precipitation 
over its watershed of 27.6 inches. 



FORESTS AND WATER SUPPLY. '-il 

"Wc must therefore enter into our discussions acknowledg- 
ing ignorance of one of the most important factors, at least as 
to its numerical or quantitive value. 

"The distribution of the circulating water capital is influenced 
by various agencies. The main factor which sets the capital 
afloat is the sun, which, by its heat and the air currents caused 
l)y it, and by the rotation of the earth, produces the evaporation 
which fills the atmosohere with vapor. Anything, therefore, 
ihat influences the intensity of insolation, the action of the sun, 
or obstructs the passage of winds, must influence the local dis- 
tribution of the water capital. The great cosmic influences 
which produce the variability of all climatic conditions, and 
therefore also of tlie circulating water capital, are the position of 
the earth's axis to the sun, by which the angle and therefore the 
iieat value of the sun's rays vary in different parts of the earth 
and at different times of the year; the distribution of land and 
water areas, which produces a difference of insolation because 
the water has less heat capacity than the land, and which also 
influences the direction of air and sea currents; the configura- 
tion of the earth, by which the density of the atmosphere is 
made unequal, and in consequence of which differences of inso- 
lation and of air temperature are induced. Thus we have not 
only climatic zones, but also continental climates and mountain 
climates in opposition to coast climates and plain or valley cli- 
mates. 

'"While this classification of cosmic climates satisfies the 
climatologist, there are many local climates to be found within 
the range of the cosmic, and the local climatic conditions are 
(hose which afi^ect human- life and human occupations most sen- 
sibly. 

"The same causes, different only in degree, which modify 
the cosmic climates, making a classification of the same possi- 
ble, effect further modifications and give rise to local climates; 
these causes are different in the degree of insolation, obstruction 
to air currents, presence of water surfaces, or moisture-laden, 
air strata. 

"Among the factors which thus modify the cosmic climate 
and help to produce a local climate differing from other local 
climates, the soil cover, and especially the presence of forest 
areas, is claimed as one that, under certain conditions, is potent: 



32 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

and this factor, being under the control of human agency more 
than any other possible modifier of climate, must therefore be 
of greatest interest to us. It is clear, from what has been stated 
so far, that the influences of the forest, if any, will be due mainly 
to its action as a cover protecting the soil and air against insola- 
tion and against winds. That the nature of a cover, its density, 
thickness, and its proper position has everything to do with the 
amount of protection it affords, everybody will admit. A mos- 
quito net is a cover, so is a linen sheet or a woolen blanket, yet 
the protection they afford is dififerent in degree and may become 
practically none. It will also be conceded that it makes a great 
difference whether the cover be placed before or behind the 
wind. Just so with the influence of the forest; it makes all the 
difference whether we have to do with a deciduous or conifer- 
ous, a dense or an open, a young low or an old high growth, 
and what position it occupies with reference to other climatic 
elements, especially to prevailing winds and water surfaces. In 
the following discussions, when the word forest is used, unless 
differently stated, a dense growth of timber is meant. 

"The question of forest influences on water supplies can be 
considered under three heads, namely — influence upon precipi- 
tation or distribution of atmospheric water; influences upon 
conservation of available water supplies; influeiice upon the dis- 
tribution or 'run-off' of these supplies. 

INFLUENCE UPON PRECIPITATION. 

"Whether forest areas are. or are not, capable of appreciably 
increasing precipitation within their limits or on neighboring 
ground is still a matter of dispute, and the complexity of the 
elements which must enter into the discussion has so far baf- 
fled solution based upon definite and strictly scientific observa- 
tion. Yet new evidence is accumulating all the time which 
apparently shows that under certain conditions forest areas 
obtain larger precipitations than open grounds, that is, they 
may increase at least the amount of precipitation over their own 
immediate and near lying areas. 

[In Minnesota popular opinion inclines to the belief that 
there is a close connection between the existence of forests and 
the rainfall of this section, and that with the disappearance of 



ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION. 33 

our forests will conic a much more rigorous climate and a 
decrease in rainfall. But the records of the weather bureau 
do not show that there is any connection between the two or 
that there has been any apparent change in the general climate 
or amount of rainfall due to the removal of our forests. The 
flow of water in most of our rivers, and in many cases the flow of 
water from springs, and the height of the water table in the land, 
have been most seriously afYected by the removal of our forests 
and should be regarded as the ways by which our water supply 
is to suffer most severely from deforestation.] 

DISPOSAL OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

"Given a certain amount of precipitation in rain or snow over 
a certain area, the disposal of the water after it has fallen, and 
the influence of the forest cover on its disposal, require our 
attention. For the sake of convenience we can divide the ele- 
ments which need consideration in this discussion into elements 
of dissipation, elements of conservation, elements of distribu- 
tion. 

"The difference in effect between the first two classes of ele- 
ments will give us an idea of the amount of available water sup- 
ply or run-off resulting from precipitation, while the third class 
bears upon the methods of distributing the available water sup- 
ply. 

ELEMENTS OF DISSIPATION 

"Elements of dissipation are those whicli diminish the avail- 
able water supplies; they are represented in the quantity of 
water which is prevented by interception from reaching the 
ground, in the quantity dissipated by evaporation, in the quan- 
tity used by plants in their growth, and in that used by trans- 
piration during the process of growing. 

Interception. The amount of rainfall and snow which is 
prevented by a forest from reaching the soil varies considerably 
according to the nature of the precipitation and to the kind of 
trees which form the forest, as well as the density and age of the 
growth. 

"A light drizzling rain of short duration may be almost 
entirely intercepted by the foliage and at once returned to the 
atmosphere by evaporation; if, however, the rain continues, 
'A 



34 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

although fine, the water will run off at last from the foliage and 
along the trunks. 

"Altogether for the rainfall conditions of Austria, Prussia 
and Switzerland, where measurements have been made, a dense 
forest growth will on the average intercept 23 per cent of the 
precipitation; but if allowance be made for the water running 
down the trunks, this loss is reduced to not more than 12 per 
cent. 

"The amount of interception in the open growths which 
characterize many of our western forest areas would be consid- 
erably smaller, especially as the rains usually fall with great 
force, and much of the precipitation is in the form of snow. 
Although branches and foliage catch a goodly amount of this, 
the winds usually shake it down, and consequently but very little 
snow is lost to the ground by interception of the foliage. 

"There is also a certain amount of water intercepted by the 
soil cover and held back by the soil itself, which must be sat- 
urated before any of it can run off or drain away. This amount, 
which is eventually dissipated by evaporation and transpiration, 
depends, of course, upon the nature of the soil and its cover, 
especially upon their capacity to absorb and retain water. 

"The water capacity of litter depends upon its nature and of 
course its thickness to a certain degree, but is much greater than 
that of soils. 

"Altogether an appreciable amount of the precipitation does 
not run off or drain through the forest cover, but is retained 
by it; yet, while this is apparently a loss, we shall see further on 
that this moisture retained in the upper strata fulfills an impor- 
tant office in checking a much greater loss due to evaporation, 
and thus become an element of conservation." 

Evaporation. The loss by evaporation after the water has 
reached tlie ground depends in the first place upon the amount 
of direct insolation of the soil, and hence its temperature, which 
again influences the temperature of the air. The nature of the 
soil cover, the relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere 
and the circulation of the air are also factors determining the 
rate of evaporation. The importance of evaporation as an ele- 
ment of dissipation may be learned from the experiments of 
Prof. T. Russell, Jr., of the U. S. Signal Service, made in 1888. 
We learn from these that the evaporation on the western plains 



WIND-BREAKINO POWER OF FORESTS. 35 

and i)lalcaus may, dining tlie year, amount to from 50 to 80 
inches, nay, in spots, 100 inches, while the rainfall (diminishing 
in reverse ratio) over this area is from 30 to 12 inches and less. 

"Thus, in Denver, where the maximum annual precipitation 
may reach 20 inches, the evaporation during one year was 69 
inches. This deficiency of 49 inches naturally must be supplied 
by waters coming from the mountains, where the precipitation 
is large and the evaporation low. (On Pike's Peak alone there 
may be 45.6 minus 26.8 or 18.8 inches to spare.)" 

Evaporation from the soil is dependent upon its covering, 
and this is important, as the soil in forests is always covered 
with dead branches, leaves, etc. In some experiments which 
were carried on in Germany during the months of July and 
August, 1883, to determine the amount of evaporation from 
different soils, it was found that from 1,000 square centimeters 
of bare ground 5,730 grams of water were evaporated, and that 
from the same area of similar soil covered with two inches of 
straw 575 grams were evaporated. This shows that the naked 
soil evaporated more than ten times as much as the covered 
soil. It is evident then that the soil covering has an important 
function in preventing evaporation. 

Wind-breaking Power of Forests. If the loss by evap- 
oration from an open field be compared with that of a forest- 
covered ground, as a matter of course it will be found to be less 
in the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the influence 
of the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air under its cover 
relatively moister, therefore less capable of absorbing moisture 
from the soil by evaporation. In addition, the circulation of 
the air is impeded between the trunks, and this influence upon 
available water supply, the wind-breaking power of the forest, 
must be considered as among the most important factors of 
water preservation. Especially is this the case on the Western 
plains and on those Western mountain ranges bearing only a 
scattered tree growth, and where, therefore, the influence of shade 
is but nominal. 

The evaporation under the influence of the wind is dependent 
not only on the temperature and dryness of the same, but also 
on its velocity, which being impeded, the rate of evaporation is 
reduced. 



36 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Interesting experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the 
changes in the rate of evaporation effected by the velocity of the 
wind were made by Prof. T. Russell, Jr., of the Signal Service, 
in 1887. The result of these experiments (made with Piche's 
hygrometers whirled around on an arm 28 feet in length, the 
results of which were compared with those from a tin dish con- 
taining 40 cubic centimeters of water exposed under shelter) 
show that, with the temperature of the air at 84 degrees and a 
relative humidity of 50 per cent, evaporation at 5 miles an hour 
was 2.2 times greater than in a calm; at 10 miles, 3.8; at 15 
miles, 4.9; at 20 miles, 5.7; at 25 miles, 6.1, and at 30 miles the 
wind would evaporate 6.3 times as much water as a calm atmos- 
phere of the same temperature and humidity. 

Now, if it is considered that the average velocity of the winds 
which constantly sweep the Western subarid and arid plains is 
from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum of 50 and 
more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to seek, and the 
function of the timber belt or even simple windbreak can be 
readily appreciated. 

Professor King has found in experiments made in Wiscon- 
sin that the influence of even a thin stand of woodland on the 
rate of evaporation was considerable. In one experiment made 
in the month of May the instruments were so placed as to meas- 
ure the evaporation to the leeward of a scant hedgerow six to 
eight feet high, having in it a few trees twelve feet high and 
many open gaps. It was found that at 300 feet from the hedge 
the evaporation was 30.1 per cent greater than at 20 feet, and at 
150 feet it was 7.2 per cent less than at 300 feet. The experiment 
was made during a moist north wind. It is sufficiently evident, 
therefore, that even a thin hedgerow exerts an influence that 
can readily be measured. In fact the presence or absence of 
protecting belts of trees under the conditions often existing on 
our prairies may make a difference between a good and a poor 
crop. All who are acquainted with our prairie sections know 
that great damage is often done to wheat, corn and other crops 
by the hot southwest winds which we are likely to have during 
the growing months. In Kansas and Nebraska during the sum- 
mer of 1894 immense tracts of corn, fully tasselled out, were 
killed by such winds. At the same time it was noticed that 
where corn was protected by trees or slopes of land, or where 



WIND-RRKAKING POWl'.R ()F FORKSTS. 37 

the humidity of the wind was increased by passing over bodies 
of water or clover fields, the injury was greatly lessened. 

What the possibilities of evaporation from hot and dry winds 
may be can be learned from statements regarding the "Foehn." 
which is the hot wind of Swit;:erland, corresponding to the 
"chinook" of our western country. 

The change in temperature from the normal, experienced under 
the influence of the Fochn, has been noted as from 28 degrees 
to 31 degrees Fahr.. and a reduction of relative humidity of 58 
per cent. A Fochn of twelve hours' duration has been known 
to "eat up" entirely a snow cover 2J/2 feet deep. 

In Denver a chinook has been known to induce a rise in 
temperature of 57 degrees Fahr. in twenty-four hours (of which 
36 degrees in five minutes), while the relative humidity sank 
from 100 to 21 per cent. 

The degree of forest influence upon rate of evaporation by 
breaking the force of winds is dependent upon the extent and 
density of the forest, and especially on the height of the trees; 
(or according to an elementary law of mechanics the influence 
which breaks the force of the wind is felt at a considerable ele- 
vation above the trees. This can be practically demonstrated 
by passing along a timber plantation on the wind-swept plains. 
Even a thin stand of young trees not higher than five feet will 
absolutely calm the air within a considerable distance and height 
beyond the shelter. 

Professor King found that an oak grove 12 to 15 feet high 
exerted an appreciable efifect in a gentle breeze at a distance of 
300 feet. In a strong wind the efYect of such a grove would be 
felt at a much greater distance to the leeward. 

At the Dominion Experiment Station in Assiniboia Dr. 
Saunders found on one occasion that windbreaks exerted an 
appreciable influence at from 50 to 80 feet to leeward for every 
foot in height, but this was during a very severe wind. It may 
probably be laid down as a general rule that windbreaks will 
exert an appreciable influence for at least one rod for every foot 
in height. 

It may not be necessary to state that the damage done to 
crops by the cold, dry winter winds is mainly due to rapid 
evaporation, and that plants are liable to suffer as much by win- 
ter drouth as bv summer drouth. 



38. ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

This is certain — that since summer and winter drouth, that is. 
rapid evaporation due to continuous dry winds, is the bane of 
the farmer on the plains, rationally disposed timber belts will 
do much to increase available water supply by reducing evap- 
oration. 

Evaporation, of course, goes on much less rapidly within 
than without the forest. How great this difference is in this 
section we have no exact figures to tell, but it is certain that 
it is much more than in Bavaria, where the following result 
was obtained: In an experiment which was carried on to 
determine the amount evaporated from April to October it was 
found that from a certain area without the forest 40.8 centi- 
meters were evaporated, within pine wood 15.9 centimeters and 
within deciduous woods 6.2 centimeters. This shows that the 
evaporation was six and one-half times as great in the open 
field as in deciduous woods. 

Transpiration. Another factor by which forests dissipate 
water supplies and which has been referred to (page 17) is 
transpiration. The quantity of water so used is as variable as 
the amount of precipitation, and in fact within certain limits 
depends largely upon it; that is to say, a plant will transpire 
in proportion to the amount of water which is at its disposal. 
Transpiration is also dependent on the stage of development of 
the plant, on the nature of its leaves and amount of foliage, on 
temperature, humidity and circulation of the air, on intensity 
of the sunlight, and on temperature and structure of the soil 
and on other meteorological conditions. Rain and dew reduce 
transpiration; wind increases it. 

The amount of transpiration depends considerably upon the 
thickness of the leaves; therefore the surface of the foliage is 
not a reliable measure, but should be compared with the weight. 

In some European experiments carried on during the period 
of vegetation, the amount of water transpired by the different 
species per pound of dry matter in the leaves was as follows: 



TRANSPIRATION. .'i9 

Pounds of Water. 

Bircli and Linden 600 to 700 

Ash 500 to 600 

Beech 450 to 500 

Maple 400 to 450 

Oak 200 to 300 

Spruce and Scotch Pine 50 to 70 

Fir . 30 to 40 

Hlack Pine 30 to 40 

Average, deciduous trees 470 

Average, evergreen trees 43 

This shows tliat there is a great difference in tlie amounts of 
water transpired from deciduous trees and evergreen trees. In 
this case the deciduous trees transpired about eleven times as 
much as the evergreens. 

"The variability of transpiration from day to day is of wide 
range: a birch standing in the open and found to have 200.000 
leaves was calculated to have transpired on hot summer days 
700 to 900 pounds, while on other days its exhalations were prob- 
ably not more than 18 to 20 pounds. 

But while trees transpire large amounts of water, our agri- 
cultural crops and other low vegetation transpire much larger 
amounts to the same areas. A small factor in the dissipation 
of water supplies is the amount of water that is retained in the 
plant itself. As before mentioned this may amount annually 
f to about S.oco- pounds per acre. The water in fresh cut woods 
forms a large part of their weight. In hard woods, such as Ash, 
Oak, Elm and Birch, it forms 38 to 45 per cent, and in soft 
woods 45 to 55 per cent or more. 

ELEMENTS OF CONSERVATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

In discussing the elements of dissipation as to the degree of 
their efifect under forest cover as compared with the same ele- 
ments at work in the open field, we have seen that the shade, 
the low temperature, the relative humidity, the absence of strong 
air currents and the protective and water-holding capacity of 
the forest floor are all factors in the conservation of the water 
supplies. We have also seen that the quantity of water lost by 
evaporation, the .greatest source of dissipation, may be more 



40 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

than six times as great in the open as in the forest. The only 
other conservative effect of forests on water supplies is their 
effect in retarding the melting of the snows. This acts as an 
important function in the prevention ot freshets by giving the 
snow a longer time to melt, so that the snow water has a bet- 
ter chance to sink into the ground. It is of course more evi- 
dent in evergreen than in deciduous forests. On the grounds 
of the Minnesota Experiment Station, where the woodland con- 
sists of a low growth of Oak. the snow is often retained in the 
woods a week longer than in the open. This often allows the 
snow water from the fields to almost wholly run off before it 
has begun to flow from the woods. Then again the daily flow 
of snow water from the woods is much shorter than from the 
open fields during spring weather, when we have warm days 
and cold nights, for it begins later in the morning and stops 
earlier in the afternoon. Under the dense shade and mulch of 
the cedar swamps of northern Minnesota the snow and ice 
often remain until the beginning of summer. The Indians claim 
there has never been a time when they could not find ice for 
their sick in the cedar swamps of that section. This retarding 
effect on the melting of snows in the spring and in preventing 
the run-off is of far greater importance in the case of streams 
that rise in the high mountains than in Minnesota and Wiscon- 
sin, where the land is more nearly level. Where streams have 
their sources in mountains, as those of Colorado and other 
Rocky Mountain States, the cutting away of the forests causes 
h heavy flow of water early in the spring and little water in the 
summer, when it is most needed for irrigation purposes. This 
has become so evident that the Chamber of Commerce of Den- 
ver, Colorado, recently petitioned the President of the United 
States to reserve such land in forests and administer it at public 
expense, and in their petition used in part the following lan- 
guage : 

"The streams upon which the irrigation system of Colorado 
depends are fed by the springs, rivulets and melting snows of 
the mountains, which in turn are nourished and protec'-ed by 
the native forests. Where the forests have been destroyed and 
the mountain slopes laid bare most unfavorable conditions pre- 
vail. The springs and the rivulets have disappeared, the wirtter 
snow melts prematurely, and the flow of the streams, formerly 



DISTRIP.UTiON OF WATF.R. 41 

equable and continuous, has become fitful and uncertain. 
Floods and drouth alternating clearly indicate that the natural 
physical conditions of the region have been unduly disturbed. 
In winter and early spring, when heavy masses of snow have 
been accumulated on treeless precipitous slopes, snow and land 
slides frequently occur with disastrous result to life and prop- 
erty." 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. 

The distribution or "run-off" of the water is often a more 
important factor in its economy than the quantity available. 
It is influenced by the surface conditions of the soil cover, by 
the porosity and structure of the soil and by the slope. There 
are two kinds of run-of¥, the surface run-ofif and the under- 
ground run-off or percolation. The former is likely to do 
injury by eroding the soil, while the latter is generally beneficial 
to vegetation in the formation of springs and in raising the 
water level in the soil. It is evident that the less surface drain- 
age and the more underground drainage the greater the spring- 
water supply and vice versa. We are, therefore, interested in 
determining the factors that increase underground drainage and 
reduce the surface flow. 

It is plain that whatever retards the flow of water over the 
land aids it in sinking into the soil. We find this exemplified 
in swamps, where the soft, rough ground retards the surface 
flow, and in forests, where the foliage checks the water in its 
descent to the ground and the forest floor retards the surface 
run-off. Theoretically such a cover should promote the flow 
of springs and maintain the height of water in wells, and in 
practice we find that this is often the case. In some cases 
springs had entirely disappeared after the clearing of near-by 
forests, but have commenced their regular flow since the trees 
have been allowed to grow again. Springs in turn influence 
the flow of water in rivers, so that forests about the headwaters 
of streams often have a most potent effect in maintaining their 
flow. There is in fact no influence of the forest that is of 
greater importance in the distribution of water supplies than 
its effect in retarding the run-oft, even though its eflfect in pre- 
venting evaporation is very important. 



42 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



FOREST INFLUENCES ON WIND AND HAIL STORMS. 

We have seen that the wind-breaking power of the forest is 
a very important factor in retarding evaporation, and in prevent- 
ing the drifting of sandy soil and snow. Tn the forest the air 
may be rather still while in the open a piercing gale may be 
blowing; in consequence there are no blizzards in a wooded 
country. Tornadoes of great force have occasionally broken 
down wide areas of timber in this section, but instances are very 
rare in which they have continued for long distances through 
forests, and it is probably true that forests have a tendency to 
prevent their formation and perhaps entirely break up those of 
lesser violence. M. Becquerel is said to have found by careful 
study that in some parts of central France hail storms show a 
marked disinclination to enter forests, and yet occasionally they 
do so. but nothing of this sort has been noticed here. 

FOREST INFLUENCES ON FOGS AND CLOUDS. 

The influence of forests on fogs and clouds has frequently 
been mentioned. The fog seems to linger in the woods after 
it has cleared off elsewhere. Trees act also as condensers and 
gatherers of dew, hoar-frost and ice; the latter phenomenon is 
especially remarkable in the so-called ice storms, where the 
accumulation of ice on the trees is so great as to break them 
down. The load of ice on some large trees is probably a ton 
or more. In this case the tree acts simply as an inorganic body. 

IMPROVEMENT OF LAND ON WHICH TREES GROW. 

As has been shown, trees add large amounts of soluble min- 
eral matters to the soil through the fall and decay of their 
leaves. In the same way they add large amounts of humus to 
the land, which helps to keep the soil porous and yet makes it 
more retentive of moisture and gases. The roots of trees often 
penetrate deep into the soil and bring up plant food that would 
not be reached by agricultural crops. A part of this is returned 
to the surface soil by the yearly fall of the leaves and in the 
twigs and branches that are left on the ground when the tree 
is cut down. The roots deepen the soil, and by their decay fur- 
nish plant' food to the soil and leave channels through which 



WHY TTTK PRAIRIES ARK TRKELHSS. 43 

water and air may enter the subsoil. It has been estimated 
that after a sandy soil in New England is so exhausted that it 
will produce nothing but red mosses it may be renewed to its 
pristine vigor and productiveness by the growth of trees on it 
for thirty years. 

WHY THE PRAIRIES ARE TREELESS. 

This question has been answered in many ways, Init often, it 
would seem, by persons not acquainted with the principles of 
forestry. It seems that the best way of getting a clear under- 
standing of this matter is to consider two extremes of tree 
growth. Eastern Minnesota has a rainfall of perhaps 26 to 35 
inches and a comparatively moist air. and at least during a part 
of the year is well adapted to the growth of the hardier kinds 
of trees. Here we find the White Pine, Basswood, Oak, Elm, 
Poplar and ntlu-r trees attaining large size. Western Dakota 
has a very light rainfall, mostly in the spring, and a very high 
rate of evaporation. Trees can scarcely be made to grow in 
this section without irrigation, and the low vegetation, the 
grasses, which require a less amount of water, replace the trees. 
It is evident that between locations having such extremes of 
tree growth there must be a place where the trees give way to 
the lower forms of vegetation. Such a meridianal zone is found 
in central Minnesota, and though it has probably changed with 
fluctuating rainfall its general location has remained practically 
the same for many years. The location of this zone was proba- 
bly gradually driven eastward, for many years previous to set- 
tlement, by the practice of the Indians of burning over prairies 
in order to furnish good pasturage for the buffalo. Of late 
years, since the prairie fires have been largely prevented, the tree 
line has moved westward and gained a little on the prairies. 
When left to itself the western limit of this tree zone would not 
make very great progress westward, but with man's assistance 
in cultivation and various other ways it may be extended much 
f^arther towards the arid regions than if left to natural conditions. 
So we find that, while great sections of the interior of this coun- 
try are treeless on account of lack of water, trees planted on 
them and properly cared for may often grow thriftily. But trees 
planted on our prairies always require more care to make them 



44 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

do well than those planted in sections of greater rainfall, and 
we should not expect them to grow as large as in the timbered 
sections without irrigation. 

RAINFALL AND HEIGHT OF WATER TABLE IN THE LAND. 

A few years ago it was argued by many friends of tree plant- 
ing that it was practicable by the planting of trees to increase 
the rainfall and prevent evaporation in the great continental 
plain sufficiently to materially change the climate. The large 
rainfall and the good crops produced for a number of years in 
the drier portions of this area after considerable planting had 
been done seemed to endorse all that the most enthusiastic of 
tree planters claimed. But it must be very evident to any care- 
ful student of the subject that such small plantings as were made, 
even had they been maintained, could scarcely have had any 
appreciable efifect on the general climate of so vast a territory. It 
is very evident, too, from a study of the annual rainfall, that it 
has fluctuated greatly in this section, and that we have perhaps 
not recorded the least or the greatest amount for any one year. 

There are some facts that seem to show plainly that there 
must have been a time when the water level of our lakes was 
much lower than it is now or than it was during the very dry 
years from 1890 to 1895, when the rainfall in most cases pro- 
duced no flow in the streams. There is a lake near Devils Lake, 
N. D., where in 1890 the old overland trail leading west termi- 
nated abruptly on one side of the lake and was taken up again 
in the continuation of its direction on the opposite side. The 
trail is clear and distinct, showing it to have been of compara- 
tively recent use. It is a reasonable inference that when this 
trail was in use this lake was dry. There are places near the 
shores of Devils Lake where upright stumps are standing sub- 
merged in water. The same phenomenon has been noticed in 
other places. These are almost certain indications of a time 
or times when the beds of these lakes, where the stumps are, 
were out of water or very nearly so for a sufficient length of 
time for the trees to grow. The climate must have been very 
dry, and the great continental plain, or at least portions of it, 
must have bordered pretty closely upon a desert, and the "Great 
American Desert" may have been a reality. It would seem, then, 



HOT WINDS. 45 

that the knowledge we arc gaining of the unknown past, as well 
as the records of more recent years, point to the recurrence of 
great fluctuations in the annual rainfall of this section, and it 
seems probable that such changes follow series of years, and that 
the reccdencc of our lakes may be followed by periods of higher 
water. 

But the influence of the cultivation of the soil on water sup- 
plies must be taken into account in this connection, for it is 
undoubtedly true that man has changed .the conditions of the 
soil sufficiently to greatly influence the run-off. The breaking 
up of large areas of prairie sod, with its low rate of evaporation, 
and the planting of such land to agricultural crops with a rela- 
tively high rate of evaporation, has resulted in a loss of soil 
water. Then the cultivated soil takes up more water than the 
sod-bound prairie slopes, so that it does not have so good an 
opportunity to collect in lakes and swamps, which often supplied 
the water of wells. And further, the straightening and cleaning 
out of water courses, and the draining of swamps in the effort 
to get arable land, has had a similar effect on subsoil water sup- 
plies. 

HOT WINDS. 

The hot winds of the plains which so often cause serious 
injury to farm crops in Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas have 
been ascribed to the arid "staked" plains, whence, taking a north- 
easterly direction, they draw all the moisture from the vegeta- 
tion with which they come in contact. The view has also been 
presented that they have their origin on the Pacific Coast, 
ascend the Rocky Mountains, lose their moisture and descend 
on the eastern slopes. But all theories that ascribe their origin 
to a distant source are inadequate to explain their phenomena. 
For instance, all who are acquainted with these winds know 
that they blow only during very dry weather, when the earth is 
heated very hot, that a good rain speedily brings them to an 
end, and that they blow only during the daytime, commencing 
about 9 A. M. and continuing until sundown. This daily move- 
ment is often constant for several weeks, showing that there is 
evidently some connection between them and the course of the 
sun. For these reasons and otiiers whicli would require too 



46 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

much space to give here, the best authorities unite in attributing 
them to local origin. 

Mr. George C. Curtiss describes the process of the produc- 
tion of a typical hot wind as follows: "The necessary condi- 
tions are those of the 'warm wave,' namely, a diminishing pres- 
sure to the northward, producing southerly winds which initially 
elevate the temperature above the normal. A cloudless sky 
favors an intense insolation, as a result of which the dry ground 
is soon raised to an ^treme temperature, and the air is heated 
from it by radiation, reflection and conduction. The resulting 
diminution of density due to the rise of temperature furnishes 
impetus to previously existing horizontal currents, and by lo 
o'clock in the morning the hot wind is fully developed. Hun- 
dreds of miles of hot dry earth contribute to maintain and feed 
the current, and, gathering strength as the sun mounts higher, 
the hot wind sweeps over the defenseless prairie. Neither hills 
nor forests rise in its path to break its power or dispute its sway, 
and, with no enemy save the tardy raincloud, the fetid blast sucks 
out the life-sap of the growing grain. It will be readily .seen 
then that each of the states, Kansas, Nebraska and North and 
South Dakota, develops its own hot winds and cannot charge 
them to the account of its neighbors." 

The local origin of these winds at once suggests the desira- 
bility of frequent windbreaks on the prairie farms, as offering 
the most practical way of breaking them up. Irrigation of 
large areas will also undoubtedly do much ro prevent them. 



CHAPTER IV. 

TREE PLANTING ON PRAIRIES. 

The subject of tree planting in this section naturally divides 
itself under the two heads of prairie planting and forest planting. 
The former relates to the limited planting of trees on our prairies 
for ornament, protection and use. and the latter to the care and 
management of timber lands and the planting of trees for profit 
from their growth. Our people are very generally impressed 
with the importance of prairie planting for protection and orna- 
ment, but are too prone to regard the care and management of 
timber lands for the production of timber crops as a matter of 
little concern and very impracticable. (The subject of the regen- 
eration of forests is treated in the chapter on Forest Planting and 
Treatment.) 

PRAIRIE PLANTING. 

Whatever the ulterior object of prairie planting, the subject of 
protection to the buildings, their occupants and the cattle in the 
field should always be first considered. Our crops in this sec- 
tion are most liable to injury from the southwest wind of sum- 
mer, which dries them out, and the northwest wind of winter, 
which blows the snow from the land, causing it to lose the snow 
water. It also causes a loss of evaporation, which goes on even 
in winter from the bare ground, and from exposed crops, causing 
them to winter-kill. The same winds are also the most uncom- 
fortable to the occupants of farm buildings, and are most likely to 
cause dust storms, which should be especially guarded against. 

Windbreak is a general name given to anything that jyives 
protection irom wind. On the prairies it is often applied to a 
single row of trees planted for protection. 

Shelterbelt is a term more often used to signify several or 
a large number of rows of trees, but the term is often used inter- 
changeably with windbreak. 

Grove is a term that refers to comparatively large bodies 
of trees which may be planted for shelter, fuel or other purposes. 



48 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Protection to Buildings may be furnished by a few rows or 
a grove of trees. It is generally best to locate the buildings in 
a grove, or grow one up around them, so that protection may be 
afforded from every quarter to the best advantage. The garden 
should also be included in the grove or shelterbelt about the 
buildings. 

Distance of the Trees from the Buildings and Roadways. 

Of whatever the protection consists, it should not be close to the 
buildings or to any paths which are used in winter, for the snow 
drifts which always form to the leeward of such protection may 
become a great nuisance under such circumstances during win- 
ters of great snowfall. The windbreak had better be placed 
about one hundred feet back from the buildings, and if shade is 
wanted it can be obtained from scattered trees near the buildings, 
which will not drift the snow. The same rule applies to the 
planting of trees on the north side of a roadway. The drifts of 
snow which would be formed to the leeward of a windbreak so 
planted would take longer to thaw in the spring, and would keep 
the road muddy and in poor condition after those that were not 
protected had become dry and firm. A row of trees is very ap- 
propriate by the side of a street or roadway and affords a pleas- 
ant shade, and if not planted too closely together will not drift 
the snow sufficiently to be an objection. 

Protection to Crops by Windbreaks. The objection to 
windbreaks close to driveways may also be made against their 
use in fields, for they often keep the land for a short distance to 
leeward wet and in unfit condition to work after the rest of the 
field has become dry. This is an objection where spring grains 
are grown, but to winter grains it is an advantage. On the 
other hand, the protection of a windbreak may give a much need- 
ed or beneficial covering of snow to crops on the leeward side. 
The protection from dust storms and drying winds has already 
been mentioned. The important question is how to get the ad- 
vantages without the disadvantages. In many sections the dis- 
advantage of having the snow linger on the field near the wind- 
break may be overcome by leaving a strip of land near it in 
permanent meadow, or use it for a rotation that does not take 
in crops that require very early planting. But even with spring- 
planted grains it is more than probable that windbreaks properly 



WINDBREAKS. 49 

planted are an advantage when their benefits are considered 
for a series of years. It ofttimes happens that low windbreaks 
ire more beneficial than high windbreaks in holding the snow 
on the land, for the high windbreaks often form a great drift 
that may remain late in the spring, while the low windbreak 
nowhere forms a large drift, but spreads the snow for long dis- 
tances. Professor Budd says that in parts of the great conti- 
nental plain of Russia, where the climatic changes are much the 
same as in this section, the use of low windbreaks in wheat 
fields is \ery common. 

Height of Windbreak. From the preceding paragraph it 
will be seen that low windbreaks may often serve a better pur- 
pose than high ones in protecting fields. Exactly what is meant 
by a low windbreak may be an open question, but for the pur- 
poses of this discussion a low windbreak may be considered one 
under twenty feet in height. In Russia and at the experiment 
station at Indian Head. Manitoba, windbreaks of Artemisia 
tobolksiana. which seldom grows more than eight feet high, 
are often used. About farm buildings windbreaks cannot be 
too high, and for this purpose the largest, longest-lived trees 
should be used. 

Kinds of Trees for a Windbreak. In too many instances 
too many tree planters on the prairies have put out exclusively 
(juick-growing, short-lived trees, such as the Cottonwood and 
Lombardy Poplar, and after fifteen or twenty years they have 
found their trees dying and nothing coming on to take their 
places. The quick-growing kinds are very desirable as a pro- 
tection for the near future, but they are often short lived and 
should never be planted alone. Among them should be planted 
a sufficient number of long-lived and perhaps slower-growing 
kinds, to afford protection in later years, when the short-lived 
kinds have died out. The soil and location have much to do 
in determining the longevity of varieties; for instance, the Cot- 
tonwood and Lombardy Poplar are generally short-lived trees 
when planted in this section, but when planted in locations 
where their roots reach the permanent water level their period 
of life may be considerably lengthened, and they may then even 
be regarded as long-lived trees. 

In starting a grove or windbreak on the prairie in this sec- 
lion, there is probably no better tree to begin with than the 
i 



&0 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



White Willow. It is quick-growing, rather long-lived in most 
situations, makes good summer fuel and renews itself very rap- 
idly from the stump. The Green Ash would probably rank next 




Figiuu J. A N'jiiny White W'illuw uinjbicak un dry prairie at Coteau 
Farm. Grown entirely by nuilching after being well started. 



as a pioneer tree. The White Elm is also very valuable for 
this purpose, but generally should follow the White Willow. 
The Cottonwood may sometimes, though very seldom, be the 
best to use, but on average prairie land it would be better if 
the White Willow or Green Ash were always planted instead. 

After a good windbreak has been secured it is safe to plant 
out the hardy coniferous evergreens and such trees as the 
Mountain Ash, European White Birch and other similar orna- 
mental trees. Wind protection is beneficial to all trees and 
necessary for many of our best ornamental kinds and often 
makes the difference between success and failure in growing 
them. 

Distance Apart. In the planting of groves we should aim 
to get the land shaded by the trees as soon as practicable, and to 
keep it covered with a canopy of leaves. The United States 
government recommended the planting of trees four feet apart 
each way, with the idea that when so planted they would quickly 
shade the ground and consequently keep out grass and retard 
evaporation. Some successful plantings have been made on 
this plan, but when planted so closely together the branches 
grow into the rows after a few years and cultivation must be 
discontinued. In this section, where we have so much very 



DISTANCE APART. 51 

bright sunshiny weather that grass can grow under foliage that 
would kill it out in a more humid climate, we find that trees 
planted four feet apart each way seldom afiford sufficient shade 
to kill the grass under them for many years. This is especially 
true of such trees as the Cottonwood, Lombardy Poplar and 
White Elm when planted alone, as they have open foliage that 
does not furnish a dense shade. Among tree planters who have 
had a large experience in prairie planting there has been a 
tendency of late years to plant two feet apart in rows eight feet 
apart, and some f>f our most successful planters prefer even 
more room than this between the rows. When plantings are 
made 2x8 feet the same number of trees are required for an acre 
as when planted 4x4 feet, but the former distance has the advan- 
tage over the latter in that the space between the rows can be 
cultivated for perhaps ten years or more, by which time most 
trees will havfc formed a dense shade and be able to take care 
of themselves. Where a much greater distance than eight feet 
is allowed between the rows we generally fail to get forest con- 
ditions for many years, and to that extent fall short of an impor- 
tant requisite in prairie planting. The distances given here 
might need to be modified to suit different varieties and local 
climatic conditions. 

Clear Plantings. Most of the plantings on our prairies 
consist wholly of one kind. In some cases good results are thus 
obtained, but they are seldom as satisfactory as plantings made 
up of several different kinds. One of the greatest drawbacks 
to plantings made up entirely of one kind is the fact that drouth, 
insects or fungous disease may destroy the whole planting at 
one time, while in a judiciously mixed planting this could hardly 
occur. 

Mixed Plantings, when properly made, have the following 
advantages: (i; They make possible the growing of species 
that form a protection in the least possible time, and still have 
coming on in the same grove longer-lived and better kinds to 
take their places. (2) Many kinds that are somewhat tender 
are helped very much by being grown among the hardier kinds 
until well established. In this case the protecting trees are 
called nurse trees. The Scotch Pine is seldom a success when 
standing alone on our Western prairies, but when partially pro- 
tected by snmc deciduous tree it stands verv well. The same 



52 ELEMENTARY FOREvSI'rY. 

is generally true of Hard ]\Iai)le in this section and of Catalpa 
and Black Walnut in Southern Minnesota. (3) In good mixed 
plantings the ground is more likely to be properly shaded and 
protected from winds than it would be in clear plantings of such 
thinly-leafed species as the Cottonwood or White Elm, which 
do well and afford good shade when mixed with Green Ash 




Figure 4. A good tree claim. Planted by Mr. Gardner, of Lyons 
county. Located on liigh prairie. Soil very dry. Has planted about 30 
acres in trees. 

or Boxclder. (4) Mixed plantings are most interesting and 
ornamental. (5) They attract more birds by their better pro- 
tection and the greater variety of food offered. (6) While the 
chance of injury to some of the species by climatic changes, dis- 
eases and insects is increased, the possibility of total loss from 
any or all of these causes is reduced to the minimum. 

The Most Important Constituent of a Prairie Grove 
of mixed trees in this section should be some well-known dura- 
ble kind, as the Elm, Ash or Boxelder, of which there should 
be a sufficient number to completely shade the ground when the 
others are gone. On the outside, especially on the north and 
west, it is often a good plan to put at least p few rows of White 



TRF.KS FOR MIXKD PLANTINGS. 53 

Willow or possibly Cottonwood to furnish a riuick protection. 
The rest of the grove should consist of hardy sorts, and may 
include some of the evergreens and such fruit-bearing trees or 
shrubs as the Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry, Russian Mul- 
l>crry and Junebcrry. These latter furnish food for the birds 
■md may often be a help in supplying the home table. The 
plan of planting with a view of providing some food for birds 
is not mere sentiment, for they protect our gardens from many 
insects, and if we furnish an abundance of Russian Mulberry 
they will not trespass much on our strawberries or raspberries. 
It is the author's opinion that in all our prairie planting wc 
should pay more attention to using our native fruits and Rus- 
sian Mulberry as plants of secondary importance. 

I/ist of Trees for Mixed Plantings. Some suggestions 
may be found in the following lists, but several other trees might 
often be used to give a variety or a tasteful display. 

For Porous Moist Soils in Southern Minnesota. White 
Elm, Black Walnut, Green Ash and Hard Maple in equal quan- 
tities with a scattering of the fruit plants. The Hackberry may 
wholly or in part take the place of the White Elm, and the Box- 
elder the place of the Green Ash. The White Willow, Bass- 
wood and Soft Maple would also do well in such a location. 
One of the main kinds might be replaced by the White or Nor- 
way Spruce, Douglas Fir or White Pine. In fact such land as 
this will grow any of the trees adapted to this section. 

For High Prairie Soils in Southern Minnesota. Green 
Ash, Boxclder, White Elm and White Willow in equal quanti- 
ties, with scattering of fruit plants. Basswood might be used to 
a limited extent, and White Spruce, Red Cedar, Norway Pine, 
White Pine or Scotch Pine might be used in the place of one 
of the main kinds. 

For Moist, Porous Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. 
White Willow, White Elm, Boxelder, Basswood and Green 
Ash in equal quantities, with a scattering of fruit plants. In 
some localities it might be best to use Cottonwood on the out- 
side of the grove. Hackberry might take the place of part of 
the White Elm and White Spruce, Arborvitse, Norway Pine, 
Red Cedar, and some other conifers might be used to a limited 
extent. 



54 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

For High Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota. Cot- 
tonwood, White Willow, Bo.xelder and White Elm in equal 
quantities, with a scattering of fruit plants. White Spruce and 
native Red Cedar mip;ht also be used in a small way. 

Lists of trees commonly planted, arranged in the order of 
their hardiness: Deciduous trees — Green Ash, White Willow. 
White Elm. Boxelder, Basswood, White Poplar. Hackberry, 
Soft Maple, Canoe Birch and Yellow Locust. Evergreen trees — 
Red Cedar, Dwarf Mountain Pine, Jack Pine, Bull Pine, White 
Spruce, Aiistrian Pine, Scotch Pine, Douglas Spruce, Norway 
Pine, Norway Spruce and White Pine. 

Size of Trees. In the case of deciduous trees it is gener- 
ally best to start with one year old thrifty seedlings, although 
trees two years old may often be used to advantage. The Oak, 
Walnut and similar trees are better started from seeds where 
they are to remain, and the White Willow should be started from 
cuttings. Seedling Elm, Ash and Cottonwood may often be 
pulled from some river bank or lake shore, or bought of nursery 
men at a very low figure, or they may be raised from seeds. 
White Willow cuttings can generally be obtained from some 
neighbor or from nurseries. In the case of conifers, transplanted 
seedlings should be used. Whatever the source of any stock 
that is to be planted, it should be thrifty and vigorous and not 
weak or diseased. 

Methods of Planting, The methods used in prairie plant- 
ing are much the same as for transplanting in the nursery. In 
every case much pains should be taken to have the soil in the 
best condition. It is generally better to delay planting for a 
year than to attempt it in poorly prepared soil. Tree plantings 
have been made on our prairies by sowing tree seeds broadcast 
in autumn after first carefully preparing the soil, but the plan is 
seldom successful. A start can, however, be made from seeds by 
planting the seeds in hills either alone or with corn or beans. 
In the latter case the tree seedlings often do very well and do not 
interfere with the growth of the crop. The seedlings are culti- 
vated in the spring after the crop is removed and as they are in 
rows this is a very simple matter. The common and generally 
most successful plan with trees that can be easily transplanted 
is to start with seedlings and plant in rows. The simplest and 
easiest way of doing this is to furrow one way, mark out the 



CULTIVATION AND THINNING. 55 

nthcr way nnd plant the trees in the furrows at the intersections. 
If Black Walnut or any of the oaks are wanted in a mixed plant- 
ing it is generally best to plant the other species first and put 
in the nuts or acorns afterwards. Where it is desirable to plant 
seedlings or cuttings to fill vacancies, a pointed stick or spade 
may be used to make the hole. Whatever method is used in 
planting, it is most important that the soil be packed firmly 
around the roots, so they will not dry out. If the soil is dry it 
cannot be made too solid around the roots. If cuttings are used 
they should be made about 14 inches long, and in planting be 
pushed into the loose soil in a slanting position, leaving only 
one bud above the surface, as recommended in the planting of 
cuttings. 

Cultivation should be commenced shortly after planting and 
be repeated often enough to keep the top three inches of soil 
loose, so as to form a dust blanket to retard evaporation during 
dry weather. The soil should never be allowed to become baked 
hard after a rain, but the crust should be broken up with a horse 
cultivator as soon after a rain as it can be worked. Cultivation 
should be discontinued after the first of August, in order to 
encourage early ripening of the wood. The weeds that grow 
after this time of year will do no harm. 

One of the best tools for early cultivation of small seedlings 
is Breed's Weeder, which may be worked both ways and cleans 
out the weeds to perfection. The ordinary corn cultivator is 
also a good implement for this purpose. Later cultivation 
should consist of working the soil with a one-horse cultivator 
or plow. If the horse implements are properly used there will 
be no necessity of hand hoeing, for the few weeds that grow in 
the rows of trees will do no injury to them. Some planters sow 
oats among the young trees for protection when cultivation 
ceases, but if field mice are abundant it may be best not to do 
so. Late in autumn of the first year or two after planting some 
soil should be turned towards the trees with a plow, to protect 
them. 

Thinning. In growing prairie groves wc should always 
aim to have the tops of the trees just touch one another without 
serious crowding, but still have the soil shaded and protected 
from wind. In order to bring this about, the grove must be 
thinned occasionally, for although the trees would thin them- 



56 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

selves if left alone it would be at the expense of growth and per- 
haps cause serious injury. Trees that are crowded together may 
suiifer more from drouth than those that have plenty of room 
for their roots. This is especially true of tender trees on dry 
land. If the trees begin to crowd one another the poorest 
should be removed, but this should be done carefully and never 
to such an extent as to let in the sunlight, which would encour- 
age the growth of grass, weeds and side branches. Thinning 
may be done at any time, but if the wood taken out is to be used 
for fence posts or poles it would be better to cut in winter and 
peel at once to aid it in curing. 

The Blowing Out of Small Seedlings planted in prairie 
soil is not uncommon where they are in very exposed situations. 
The movement of the young seedlings by the wind keeps the soil 
loose around them, which the severe winds blow away. Occa- 
sionally by such means the roots may be left three or four inches 
out of the ground the first season. In such very severe loca- 
tions it is often a good plan to mulch the soil with straw or sim- 
ilar material until the seedlings are well established, after which 
they may be cultivated, or the mulching process may be contin- 
ued until they will take care of themselves. 

The Proper l/ocation of the Buildings on a Farm 
is a very important matter and seldom receives the attention 
which its importance demands. The position of the buildings 
determines the location of the drives and of the shelterbelts if 
any are to be planted. There are many factors which should 
enter into the study of this question, among the first of which is 
the lay of the land. Good drainage and good water are the first 
requisites for the location of a home, after which come con- 
venience and beauty. It is very desirable that the first location 
be made just right, since when other improvements and build- 
ings have been commenced it can seldom be changed without 
much extra expense. In the case of most of our farms the sub- 
ject of plans is conspicuous by its absence, as small cramped 
grounds about inconveniently arranged buildings bear abundant 
evidence. 

In figure 5 is shown four plans suggestive of the proper loca- 
tion of the shelter belts about farm buildings located on level 
prairies, and varying according to the location of the main high- 
way. Five acres in the form of a rectangle, 25 rods wide and 32 



LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS. '.7 

rods long, are included in the land about the buildings, and this 
has a shelter belt five rods wide on the north and west sides, 
and on the south side two rows of trees ten feet apart, with the 







Figure 5. Suggestion f6r laying out the grounds about the buildings 
on prairie farms, showing errangements adapted to a highway located 
on four different sides. Size 30x37 rods, enclosing five acres, exclusive of 
shelterbelt on north and west sides five rods wide. Rows of trees indi- 
cated. See figure (6) for further details and suggestions. 

trees one rod apart in the rows. Within this enclosure are all 
the farm buildings, orchard, fruit and vegetable garden, barn- 
yards, etc. The house should be within 100 feet of the road, and 
the stock buildings at least 100 feet from the house and garden. 
About the buildings and garden some supplementary wind- 



58 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

breaks and ornamental trees and shrubs will be needed for v, ind 
protection and for beautifying the place. This arrangement 
gives plenty of room for the buildings, barnyards, garden and 
orchard, and, while all the land enclosed may not be needed 
for these purposes, the remainder is well adapted to the growing 




Figure 6. Suggestion in detail for laying out the grounds about the 
buildings on a prairie farm. Highway on south, size 30x37 rods enclosing 
five acres; windbreak on north and west five rods wide. Two rows of 
trees next to highway. Rows of trees indicated. 

of general farm crops. The plans are only suggestive and no 
attempt is made to work out details, and there are compara- 
tively few farms that they would fit exactly. For instance, while 
it is desirable to have the buildings centrally located, their posi- 
tion must frequently be pushed to one side on account of a 
swamp or lowland which is not suitable for them, or their posi- 
tion may be determined by a beautiful natural grove. Figure 6 
shows a plan for a south front drawn on a larger scale. It may 
often be desirable to change the shape of the land enclosed, but 



LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS. 59 

in the great majority of prairie farms a plan similar to this would 
work out to good advantage and the area enclosed by wind- 
breaks could often be increased to ten acres to good advantage. 
A rule that should be carefully followed in all tree plantings 
is that the view from the most commonly used rooms of any- 
thing that is suggestive of pleasant associations or that is 
especially interesting or entertaining should not be cut off. 
Under this head would be included the view, from the living- 
room windows, of the traveled wagon road or perhaps of the 
railroad, of the neighboring houses or perhaps a nearby lake, 
and of the important fields on the farm, especially those where 
stock is pastured. I'hese views can generally be secured without 
seriously impairing the valiie of the windbreaks, by cutting small 
openings in them or perhaps by simply shortening the trees, so 
that llicy will not interfere with the line of sight. 



CHAPTER V. 

FOREST REGENERATION AND TREATMENT. 

The timber lands of Minnesota should, as a rule, be managed 
so as to get the greatest cash returns from them, for that only 
is practical forestry which has this fundamental feature always 
in view. Our virgin forests have contained, and those remaining 
now contain, a large percentage of trees past their prime and 
losing in value each year they stand. Such forest products 
should be worked up as soon as a good market is found for 
them. In virgin forests there is no increase, the annual growth 
being just balanced by tlie annual decay under normal condi- 
tions. 

The Cultivation of Trees on timber lands in this section 
has never received much attention, and the only data as to the 
rate of increase that we have to follow are what can be obtained 
from the native forests, and these are for this reason only 
approximately correct. In European countries and elsewhere 
it has been proved by long experience that more timber is 
grown per acre, and that the growth is much more rapid, on land 
where some attention is given to systematic forestry than on that 
which is left to itself, and it will seem reasonable to believe this, 
when we consider that much of the energy of trees may be 
expended in fierce competition with neighbors, which may 
weaken them all and perhaps bring about unhealthy conditions, 
and that natural forest land is generally unevenly stocked with 
trees, many of which are rotten or otherwise defective, and 
often with those that are not the most profitable kinds to grow. 
In the cultivated forests unnecessary crowding is prevented by 
judicious thinning, and the land is kept evenly and completely 
stocked with the most profitable kinds. 

Succession of Tree Growth is an expression sometimes 
used as though there were a natural rotation of trees on the land. 
There is nothing of the sort. Sometimes hard woods will follow 
pine, or thf pine the hard woods, where the two were mixed at 



FORICST RKGKXF.R \TJOX AND TRKATMF.XT. <'.1 




Figure 7. Virgin Forest. 
White and Red Pine mixed. Near Mille Lacs. Good Natural Regeneration. 



62 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

the time of cutting and there was a young growth of one or the 
other kind which had a chance to grow when its competitor was 
removed. Where land is severely burned after being cut over, 
the trees that show first are generally the kinds with seeds that 
float long distances in the wind, such as Poplar and Birch, or 
those having fruits especially liked by birds, such as the Bird 
Cherry, which is very widely distributed. These show first on 
account of getting started first. The pine and the other trees 
may come in later owing to their being seeded later or owing 
to the later advent of conditions favorable to their germination 
and growth. It may happen in the case of burnt-over pine land 
that pine seed is distributed over it the first year after it is 
burned, but owing to there being no protection from the sun 
the young seedlings of White and Norway Pine which are very 
delicate, are destroyed. After a young growth of Poplars has 
appeared the pine seed may find just the right conditions for 
growth for a few years and finally get ahead of the poplars and 
crowd them out, while in the meantime it is being much 
improved by the presence of the poplars, which grow rapidly 
and force the pines to make a tall growth. On the other hand, 
however, the poplars, birches and other trees and shrubs and 
even weeds may sometimes make so strong a growth as to kill 
out the young pine seedlings if they are not sufSciently well 
established at the time the mature growth is cut. 

Regeneration is a term commonly used in forestry to sig- 
nify the renewal of forest trees upon the land. It is a convenient 
term and well worthy of general introduction into the forest 
literature of this country. The different forms of regeneration 
may be referred to as (i) regeneration by natural seeding, (2) 
regeneration by artificial seeding, (3) regeneration by sprouts 
and suckers, (4) regeneration by planting seedlings, (5) regen- 
eration by planting cuttings. The method of regeneration best 
adapted for one section may not be at all fitted for another under 
different conditions, and often it is best to combine two or more 
of the different forms of regeneration. 

Regeneration by Seed. Where natural regeneration by 
seed can be easily brought about, it is generally the best practice. 
This is especially true in sections where timber is comparatively 
cheap, as is generally the case in this country. It may be 
greatlv assisted by stirring the surface of the soil in good seed 



NATURAL RHGENERATION. 63 

years, and in other ways bringing about conditions conducive 
to the germination and growth of the seeds. Where it is prac- 
ticable to use it, a disk harrow is an admirable implement for 
breaking up the forest floor so as to allow the germination of 
seeds. Where a disk harrow cannot be used to advantage, and 
it can seldom be so used on new land in this country, it is a 
good plan to use a drag made by tying together several oak 
branches or small logs. Good seed years do not occur very 
often in our most desirable species, and it is very important to 
take advantage of these good years when they do come. At 
such times it is often a good practice to make extra cuttings in 
order to let in light and air, as well as to stir the soil and so 
make it possible to secure a good catch of tlie seed. 

Tlic methods adopted to secure natural regeneration by 
seed may be divided into three systems, each of which may be 
best adapted to some special conditions. These are known (i) 
as the Selection Method, (2) as the Strip Method and (3) as the 
Group Method. 

The Selection Method refers to the cutting of the mature 
trees and to the removal of inferior trees to make room for the 
better kinds. In this system much care should be exercised to 
prevent the growth of grass, which generally comes in when 
the cutting is done more rapidly than the seeding trees can 
seed the bare land. On the other hand it is just as important 
to exercise care that the young seedlings which have started 
have sufTicient light so that they can make a good growth and 
not be shaded out by the older trees. The removal of a single 
tree often lets in so very little light that seedlings cannot get a 
good start. On this account tiie group method is probably best 
adapted for general use. 

Strip Method is a term that is applied to the system where 
the trees are removed in narrow strips across which the remain- 
ing older trees can easily scatter their seed. The best width of 
strips will depend on the species and the local conditions. Some 
who advocate this method claim that the strips should not be 
wider than the height of the trees, while others would allow 
strips three or four times the height in the case of the elm, 
maples and pine, and in the case of birch even eight times may 
not be too much. Such strips should generally begin on the 
side o]iposite from the prevailing winds at seeding time, so the 



(i4 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



seed will be blown onto the denuded land. In the case of hill- 
sides the strips should generally extend along near the sum- 
mits, and successive strips should be on the lower sides to pre- 
vent washing of the soil. The strips may extend on one or two 
sides, and in shape should often be adapted to the contour of 
the land. 

The Group Method is a system of cutting strips suc- 
cessively on the inside of certain groups. This may be termed a 




Figure 8. Diagram illustrating the system followed in the group 
method of cutting. Cuttings are begun at points marked i, and are 
gradually extended by successive cuttings as indicated by figures 2, 3, 4 
and s. After Schlich. 



natural method, and for general use, especially in mixed woods 
and where the land and conditions are quite valuable, it is much 



REGENERATION BY ARTIFICIAL SEEDING. <5r. 

the best. It gives a chance to adapt the method of cutting to 
the different species and to the different conditions which may 
l)c found in the forest. For instance, a tamarack swamp, dry 
knoll covered with oak, a steep hillside, and level, rich, rocky 
land, each covered with the trees peculiar to it, would very 
likely all be included in almost any forest tract of any considera- 
ble size in the northern states, and each portion should receive 
special treatment. We can begin with one group or several, 
and we can start our regeneration in each group perhaps where 
there is already a good growth of young trees. In fact this sys- 
tem gives us a chance to begin regeneration where the greatest 
necessity or the best chance for it already exists. 

The size of the opening will depend here as in the strip 
method on the species grown and their conditions. Generally 
the first openings will be from one-fourth to one-half acre or 
more, and the strips taken around it should in width not greatly 
exceed the height of the trees in the strip next to be cut. 

Of course the regeneration in any case should be managed 
with the same care that should be given to any well managed 
forest to bring about the predominance of the most valuable 
kinds under the best light and soil conditions. 

Regeneration by Artificial Seeding. Occasionally it may 
be desirable to sow seed in wt^odlands. This is especially so in 
the case of some of our nut trees such as black walnut, butter- 
nut and oaks, which readily renew themselves by such means. 
In the case of pine and Spruce, however, success is quite uncer- 
tain under such treatment. Perhaps it is most certain with pine 
and spruce where it is practicable to furrow out with the nlow, 
as for instance it might be on some of the sandy lands of Min- 
nesota where furrows might be run between the trees or the 
land loosened in patches with a hoe. In this case the standing 
trees afford the proper shade conditions for the seedlings. In 
the case of clear fields, it is quite a simple matter to sow the seed 
in furrows. Where the moss is thick on the surface of the soil, 
it is a good plan to cut it oft in squares, or long strips may be 
sown after preparation. The seed will seldom grow if it is sown 
in deep or thick moss. Where seed is sown broadcast over 
ordinary forest land the seedlings are liable to be killed out by 
the weeds, which generally come in quickly as soon as the sun- 
light is allowed upon the soil. Pine and many other seeds are 
5 



66 ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 

sometimes sown in clear fields with oats, when the straw protects 
from the sun in summer and the stubble holds the snow and acts 
as winter protection. Seed of ash, maple, elm and some other 
trees may sometimes be sown in the hills with corn to advantage 
in prairie planting, and willow cuttings may also be used in the 
same way or with beans. 

Natural Reseeding of the land is then almost the only 
practical means of restocking the land in this section, which 
should receive attention here, as other methods are too expen- 
sive. It generally takes place in this section, and the only rea- 
son why it is not more successful is the frequent destruction of 
the young seedlings by fires. The small crooked branching pine 
and other seeding trees that are always left by lumbermen in 
their operations here, and generally considered worthless, per- 
form a very important work in producing seed, and it is a pity 
that there are not more such trees left to produce seed for our 
cut-over lands. When such trees escape the first burning after 
the land is cut over, they often remain for twenty years doing 
their blessed work of distributing seed each year, and when the 
conditions exist for germination and growth the seed grows and 
lives. Sometimes where such trees are not left by lumbermen, 
or where they have been destroyed by fire, it has taken twenty 
years to get the land properly reseeded to White Pine by the 
slow process of seeding from trees at a distance of half a mile 
or more. 

The Covering of Tree Seeds in Woodland, whether 
the seeds are sown naturally or artificially, can often be best 
accomplished by stirring up the soil with a strong harrow or a 
brush drag made of the branches of an oak or other tree having 
strong wood. This may sometimes be done most advan- 
tageously before the seeds fall, and at other times after they 
have fallen. Where the soil is made loose and the forest floor 
is broken up before the seeds fall, they are generally sufficiently 
covered by wind and rain. They may sometimes be covered 
most satisfactorily by driving a flock of sheep over the land 
after the seed has fallen, the feet of the sheep pressing the seed 
into the ground. 

Regeneration by Planting Seedlings. This form of 
regeneration is practiced to a considerable extent in sections 
where timber is hii;h in jtrice. It is often the most economical 



REGENERATION BY PLANTING SEEDLINGS, ti" 

way of securing a stock of coniferous trees upon the land. 
Under the conditions which frequently prevail on our cut-over 
land there is very little chance for natural or artificial regenera- 
tion of desirable kinds by seed, owing to the fact that all the 
seed-producing trees were cut when the land was logged, or 
have since been destroyed by fire and the ground covered by a 




ImKUIi.- 'I. I M.l ]I11H- Clltlil 



'urned over. 



L;ro\vth of weeds and inferior trees; but seedling pines can often 
be set out at intervals of perhaps ten feet apart each way where 
they would be sufficiently crowded by the weeds, poplar and 
other fast growing trees, so that they would take on an upright 
form quite free from side branches until their tops interlaced, 
after which they would crowd one another. Such planting can 
be done here at an expense of about five dollars per acre. It 
is necessary for the success of such work that weeds be pre- 
vented from smothering the trees, which they are liable to do 



68 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

until the seedlings get well started, and to prevent this it may 
be necessary to cut back the crowding plants every summer. 

It is quite common in European forests to see patches of 
land, perhaps four feet square, at twenty-foot intervals, which 
have been stripped of their mossy cover and sown to seed. 
These afiford a sort of nursery throughout the forest, from which 
seedlings may be transplanted and on which a number of seed- 
ling plants are left and form a good forest cover. 

Mound Planting is a term which signifies the planting of 
trees on mounds or on the surface of the land. This is some- 
times done on wet lands for the purpose of getting the roots 
above standing water, and it is a practice which can be followed 
in the case of several trees that do well upon rather moist soil, 
although they may die if put at once into standing water when 
young. 

Regeneration by Cuttings. There are few trees that can 
be grown in general practice from cuttings, but it is the best way 
to start willows, since seedlings of them are generally quite diffi- 
cult to obtain. Some species of the poplar can also be grown to 
best advantage in this way. 

Regeneration by Sprouts and Suckers. Some trees, 
such as the willow, poplars, oaks, chestnuts and maples renew 
themselves very readily by sprouts and suckers. Land that is 
managed on this plan for renewal is termed coppice. With the 
e;x;ception of the willow and possibly one or two other trees, the 
growth from coppice is not so large as that from seedlings, and 
it is seldom employed for other purposes than the production 
of firewood. In order to get the best growth in this way, the 
trees should be cut close to the ground when they are dormant, 
and the stumps left highest in the center, so they will tend to 
shed water and not rot. The advantage of cutting close to the 
ground is that the sprouts that come out from the trunk soon 
get roots of their own, which makes them more durable than 
when they depend entirely upon the old stump roots and they 
are much less liable to be broken of? in high winds. 

Pollarding consists in cutting back the side branches of a 
tree, or cutting off the main stem at a few feet from the ground. 
The branches may be cut off close to the main stem or at a short 
distance from it, the latter method being preferable. New 



PRUNING OF FOREST TREES. 69 

shoots spring from the cuts, and these are again cut when of 
suitable size. What has been said in regard to the season and 
manner of cutting in the previous paragraphs is practically true 
here. This process is mostly used in the case of willows and 
poplars to obtain material for basket work, small poles, fuel, etc. 

Time of Rotation is a term used to indicate the age to 
which trees arc grown. The length of this time will depend on 
the species and on the conditions. For some species not less 
than eighty years should be allowed for full maturity, while still 
others may be successfully worked on a thirty-year rotation 
period. It is not used in the same sense as in ordinary agri- 
cultural operations, where it signifies frequent changes of the 
crop for several years with a view to getting the most out of the 
soil. Since trees do not impoverish the soil, but improve it, 
there is no necessity for any such method of rotation in forestry 
as there is in agriculture. ^ 

Pruning of Forest Trees is generally an expensive opera- 
tion and little is required if trees are properly crowded when 
young, so that they take on an upright form free from side 
branches. If they are not crowded when young, many side 
branches are formed, which generally die out when the trees get 
large enough to shade all the ground. In some cases these dead 
branches drop quickly to the ground, and in others they remain 
for years, producing knots and irregularity in the wood formed 
in the meantime and should be removed. Trees grown in the 
open retain their lower branches more or less throughout life 
and they produce in consequence timber of inferior value as 
compared with trees grown in crowded woods. 

Large wounds made by cutting ofi green branches should be 
covered. It is often desirable to remove dead branches and it 
is the practice to do so in some of the plantings of W nite Pine 
that have been made in New England. It is said that the lum- 
ber there is so greatly improved by so doing that the operation 
is a paying one. But under ideal conditions for the develop- 
ment of timber trees very little is gained by pruning. 

The Young- Growth is Often Injured in ordinary lumber- 
ing operations by the felling of the trees, which bend them to the 
ground and often break them. Where special care is desired to 
protect the young growth it may be desirable to lop ofif the 



70 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

branches before felling. This is practiced to some extent where 
forests are very valuable. 

The Small Dead Twigs on such trees as spruce, and also 
the shrubbery which may surround them, are often a very val- 
uable protection against sun-.scald. This also protects from 
drying winds, which would otherwise, perhaps, sweep through 
the forests and do them injury. Forest trees seldom do best 
where they are subject to a strong draft of wind around the 
trunks. While, under' some conditions, it may be desirable to 
remove the dead branches from trees, yet even if it is decided 
to do this in the interior of the forest, it is generally best to 
leave the borders without such pruning in order to protect it 
from drafts. 

Forest Weed is a term used to signify any growth that 
may occur in forests which crowds the other growth, and so pre- 
vents it from developing to the best advantage. It may apply 
to raspberry bushes, hazel brush, poplars and other similar 
materials which often come in our forests in the early growth 
of the plantation; or even to large inferior trees which are in 
the way of the proper development of the better species. But a 
tree may at one period of its growth be of much value in a for- 
est in producing shade and acting as a nurse tree, while later on 
in its growth, after its usefulness has been completed, it may be 
regarded as a weed. 

Thinning is the most important part of the forester's art in 
securing good timber and in reseeding the land. The ideal con- 
dition in the life of timber trees is to secure a natural crop of 
seedlings so crowded when young as to increase very rapidly in 
height and produce slender trunks free from side branches. 
When this crowding has gone far enough the less valuable and 
weaker trees should be removed to give the better trees suf- 
ficient room for their crowns to develop. These remaining trees 
in the course of a few years will again crowd one another too 
severely, and this process of removing poorer trees must then 
be repeated. Then when the final stand of trees is approaching 
maturity, thinning should be commenced to let in light and air 
to produce the conditions under which seedlings develop to best 
advantage. 

Heavy thinning should be practiced only after very careful 



IMr'R()\'F.Mi:XT CUTTINGS. 71 

consideration. It is seldom desirable, as it lets in too much sun- 
light and may encourage a growth of grass. Where natural 
regeneration is practiced, only such openings should be made 
as will 1)0 shortly covered with valuable species. 

Important Principles that Should be Remembered: 

fi) That increase of wood is proportional to leaf surface and 
therefore the lands should be kept as nearly as possible covered 
with a canopy of leaves, which should be on trees that are valua- 
ble for their timber. (2) That leaves need light: therefore 
jiartly shaded branches form but little and imperfect wood, and 
those that are very heavily shaded die out: crowding prevents 
the formation of branches on trees and is important in securing 
the best timber. The amount of waste in branchwood varies 
greatly, it being very much in trees that are entirely open grown, 
and very little in trees that have been severely crowded. But 
as over-crowding causes decay it is important to do the thinning 
as soon as the tree has taken on a proper form. Crowding on 
one side causes crooks, and these can be prevented by cutting 
off the crowding tree or branch. 

Waste in Forests occurs, as has been partially stated, in 
branchwood, crooks, rot, and in growing of the kinds of trees 
that are not marketable. The kinds that are marketable depend 
largely on the demand. In considering this subject it is best 
to be conservative and to select kinds that are of stable value, 
and not likely to go out of fashion. Since crowding is best done 
by small trees among the large timber trees, they should be of 
a kind that are marketable when small. 

Much waste in timber is caused by cutting trees when small. 
The amount of waste in the shafts of straight trees, excluding 
trunks, branches and bark, may vary from eighty-one per cent 
in a tree eight inches in diameter and ninety feet high, to six 
per cent in a tree forty inches in diameter on the stump and 
one hundred feet high. It will thus be seen that there is great 
loss from cutting trees when small, especially if they arc growing 
rapidly. 

Improvement Cuttings is a term used to signify an 
improvement of forests by cutting out inferior and crowding 
trees. This is a very important matter in getting almost any 
forest tract into a condition where it can be managed to best 



72 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

advantage under the group, strip or other systems. Generally 
it will at first consist in removing the dead, rotten and mature 
trees and those of inferior species, and so give better oppor- 
tunity for the more valuable kinds. This is a matter that calls 
for much good judgment. Care should be exercised not to 
make openings so large but what they will shortly be occupied 
by seedlings of valuable trees. Where large openings are made 
they are apt to become covered with grass, which is a great 
detriment to any forest growth and always indicates that the 
cutting has been done too rapidly for best results. 

The Ax and Saw, then, as will be seen from the foregoing 
paragraphs, furnish the most important means when used 
judiciously in securing the best growth of timber in forests of 
this section and the proper succession of growth on forest land. 

The Farm "Woodlot is a customary feature on many farms 
in the northeastern states. As a rule it occupies land that is of 
very little value for any other purpose. It is generally not man- 
aged at all, but left to look after itself, and often it is pastured. 
It is expected to furnish firewood, posts and poles and an occa- 
sional stick of dimension stuff. Too often the best is cut and the 
poorest left to grow. Under such rough treatment the woodlot 
becomes stocked with an inferior growth that is of little value 
except for firewood, and it does not produce as much of that as 
it might under a diiTerent system of management. 

Improving the 'WoodlGt. The general rules laid down for 
the management of forests will apply here. The cattle should 
be kept out, so as to give the young seedlings a chance to grow. 
Improvement cuttings should be introduced with a view of get- 
ting rid of the crooked and mature trees and those of inferior 
species and of encouraging a growth of young seedlings of val- 
uable kinds. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PROPAGATION. 

Trees are Grown from Seeds or by Division. The latter 
term includes increase by cuttings, layers, buds and grafts. 
Plants grown from seeds are generally more vigorous and 
longer lived than those of the same species propagated in any 
other way. Trees should be grown from seeds when it is prac- 
ticable to do so, but willows and some other trees are apparent 
exceptions to this rule and seem to do as well when grown from 
cuttings as when grown from seeds. Varieties do not generally 
perpetuate their peculiar characteristics when grown from seeds, 
and must therefore be propagated by some method of division. 

The Most Desirable Trees from Which to Propagate 
are those of good form and healthy growth; the latter is the one 
most important requisite, especially if new plants are" to be 
grown by any method of division. It is not so essential in 
selecting seeds, as even weak plants may produce good seed- 
lings, but unhealthy cuttings, layers or grafts are of very uncer- 
tain growth. In general, it is best that the stock trees be 
healthy throughout, but a tree may have a rotten trunk due to 
some injury and still have perfectly healthy branches and be a 
desirable tree from which to propagate. 

SEEDS. 

Sources of Seeds. In growing trees from seeds the 
source of the seeds is very important. It may be given as a 
safe general rule that seeds are most desirable which come from 
trees grown in as severe a climate as that in which the seeds are 
to be sown. It has been found that Jrees of Boxelder and Red 
Cedar grown from seeds gathered in Missouri are not nearly so 
hardy in this section as those from seeds grown in our own state. 
It has also been found that seeds from the western slopes of the 
Rocky IMountains, where the climate is very humid, produce 
trees which are not so well adapted to withstanding the condi- 



74 ELEAIENTARY FORESTRY. 

tions of this section as trees grown from seeds from the eastern 
slopes, where the summers are very dry and hot and the winters 
very dry and cold. Our climate is especially trying to trees, 
and it is necessary to exercise much more care in the selection 
of tree seeds here than it is in the more favored climate of the 
eastern and western coast states. 

There are Conditions Under Which i^very Species of 
Tree Thrives Best and makes its greatest growth, but the trees 
produced under these conditions are not always the hardiest. As 
we reach the limits of their growth, trees have a tendency on 
account of drouth or cold to become smaller, more compact in 
form and to fruit younger; e. g., the Boxelder is a large tree 
in Kansas and Missouri, but as it gets towards the Manitoba 
line we find it becomes dwarfed and more bushy in habit. 
Towards the southern limit of its range the tree becomes more 
open in habit and more liable to disease. The Scotch Pine 
seeds imported into this country are generally saved from the 
small scrubby trees that are found in the higher altitudes of the 
mountains of Europe, because such trees produce the most 
seeds and they are most easily gathered from them, while seeds 
are seldom gathered from the large timber trees of this species, 
and it is very likely that this poor seed stock is responsible for 
much of the scrubby appearance of many Scotch Pine planta- 
tions in this section. 

Trees Have a Strong Tendency to Perpetuate Qualities 
which have been developed in them by climate and soil condi- 
tions. Hence, even though an essential point in considering the 
value of any tree is its hardiness, the question of size is impor- 
tant and should be taken into account, as we generally wish to 
grow trees of as large size as practicable. We may conclude, 
then, that since trees from a very cold, climate generally lack in 
hardiness, and those from a very severe climate may lack in 
size, it is best to procure seeds from the best trees grown near 
by or from those grown under similar climatic conditions else- 
where. It is not generallY necessary to limit this range very 
closely, as a hundred miles north or south of a given point will 
seldom make much difference in hardiness, unless the climatic 
conditions are very dissimilar. 

The Place "Where the Trees that we are to Set Out are 
Grown is not of so great importance as the source of the seeds 



GERMIXATIOX OF Sl-.KDS. 75 

from wliicli they arc grown; c. g.. seedlings of Red Cedar grown 
in Missouri from seeds of native Minnesota trees would be safer 
to plant here than seedlings raised in Minnesota from the seeds 
of native Missouri trees. 

Seedlingf Variations. In our common trees variations are 
not sufficiently marked but that we think of the trees as coming 
true from seeds, and yet careful observation will show to any 
one that each seedling plant is different from neighboring plants 
of the same species. Sometimes a seedling will occur that pos- 
sesses especially pleasing or curious characteristics that are very 
marked and desirable. In such cases the seedling is generally 
propagated by some method of bud-division and makes a new 
variety. In this way have originated such highly-esteemed kinds 
as Wier's Cut-leaf Maple, which was a chance seedling of the 
Soft Maple, the Weeping American Elm, Cut-leaf Birch, Weep- 
ing Mountain Ash, Pyramidal Arborvitjc, and a host of other 
kinds that arc propagated by bud-division by nurserymen. The 
person who is on the lookout for these or other variations will 
have no trouble in finding many that may perhaps be worth 
naming and propagating. 

Gathering Seeds. All kinds of seeds should be gathered 
when ripe. In some cases it is best to pick them from the trees 
even before they are quite ripe, after which they will ripen if 
kept dry. Unripe seeds do not keep as well as perfectly ripe 
seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds are most cheaply gathered from 
the ground. In some cases this method can be greatly facili- 
tated by cleaning up the land under the trees so it vi^ill be smooth 
and even. Seeds of some species can often be swept up at little 
expense from under trees growing along the highway. 

Germination of Seeds. Tlure arc many conditions which 
affect the genniiiation of seeds: 

(i) Seeds which are thoroughly ripened before they arc 
gathered produce the best plants. Very immature seeds will 
very often grow, but the tendency with them is to produce weak 
plants. (2) Freshly gathered seeds, as a rule, are preferable to 
old seeds for sowing, and seeds that have never been allowed to 
become very dry are more likely to grow than those which have 
been severely dried. This is especially true of most of the kinds 
of seeds that ripen in early summer, the most of which lose their 



76 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

vitality very quickly when stored. (3) Some seeds, such as 
those of the Plum, Cherry and Black Walnut, require severe 
freezing when moist in order to germinate. (4) Seeds that are 
covered with water will not generally grow. This is true at least 
of our northern tree seeds. (5) The seeds of some trees germi- 
nate at a temperature near freezing, while others require a much 
higher temperature. (6) After seeds of some plants have 
become very dry, scalding may aid them in germinating, while 
with others scalding is injurious. It is sometimes desirable to 
soak seeds for one or two days in tepid water, and then mix with 
sand and freeze before sowing. Lindley records that seeds found 
in raspberry jam grew after passing through the heat necessary 
to boil syrup (240 degrees Fahr.) and that seeds of Acacia and 
Lophantha grew after being boiled five minutes, but our com- 
mon tree seeds will not stand such treatment. 

Stratification, as the term is used in this connection, refers 
to the storing of seeds mixed with layers of earth, leaves or other 
material. It is customary to apply the term solely to seeds that 
are mixed in this way and kept frozen over winter. It is the 
common practice with the seeds of such trees as the Black Wal- 
nut, Hickory, Basswood, Plum, Cherry and Mountain Ash. 
Where only small quantities are to be cared for they are gener- 
ally mixed in boxes and the boxes buried in well drained soil out 
of doors, but where large quantities are to be handled they may 
be mixed with soil on the surface of the ground and left until 
spring; such a pile is termed a pit. One of the best materials 
with which to cover seed pits is inverted grass sod. It is a good 
plan to have the material that is mixed with the seed so fine 
that it will easily go through a screen and leave the seeds sep- 
arated for sbwing. 

Wintering Acorns and Other Nuts in I^arge Quanti- 
ties. On account of the great liability to injury where a large 
amount of nuts are stored in heaps, and on account of the imprac- 
ticability many times of stratifying them with sand, the following 
plan is resorted to in some sections: 

A house is made, preferably with a sandy floor, so as to secure 
good drainage, and is covered with sod roof and sides, so as to 
keep out most of the frost. This may be of any size, but perhaps 
20 feet in width and any length would be very convenient. The 



CLASSIFICATION OF SEEDS. 77 

nuts arc spread over the ground about i8 inches thick, and arc 
kept stirred until frozen in winter. As soon as they thaw out, 
they are turned once a day. In this way they are prevented from 
molding, and from the other injuries that are so common to nuts 
stored in large quantities. It would be desirable to keep the 
temperature from ever going much below freezing. 

Seeds May be Classified Into Three Groups: (i) Those 
that ripen in spring and early summer, (2) deciduous tree seeds 
that ripen in autumn, and (3) coniferous tree seeds. 

Seeds that Ripen in Spring and ^Early Summer sliould 
be gathered as soon as ripe, and, with the exception of the Red 
Elm, sown within a few days or weeks, as they retain their vitality 
but a short time. (Red Elm seed will not grow until the follow- 
ing spring). In raising seedlings of this class it is important to 
have land that will retain its moisture during the summer months 
or else that which can be conveniently irrigated, since these seeds 
must often be sown during very hof, dry weather, and as they 
cannot be covered deeply they are very liable to fail with any but 
the best conditions. The thousands of seedlings of Cottonwood, 
Elm and Soft Maple that spring up on the sand bars along our 
rivers and lake shores show what are the best conditions for 
these seeds to germinate. 

Cottonwood Seedlings can be grown by scattering the 
branches bearing unopened seed pods along rows in moist soil 
and covering the seed lightly when it falls, but they are of so 
uncertain growth that most of our nurserymen depend upon the 
sand bars and lake shores for their supply. 

ISlni, Soft Maple and Mulberry seeds generally grow 
well on any good moist soil. They should be sown thickly in 
drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, or in narrow drills. 
Elm seeds should be covered with about one-half inch of soil, 
Mulberry with about one-fourth inch and Soft Maple with about 
one inch. If the weather is dry the soil over the seeds should 
be well packed, and if the weather continues dry the rows should 
be watered. Watering, however, is seldom necessary on reten- 
tive soil if the soil has been properly packed. With proper con- 
ditions seeds so planted will start quickly and grow rapidly; the 
Elm will grow from six to eighteen inches and the Soft Maple 
twelve to twenty-four inches high before the first autumn. Such 



78 ele^mentary Forestry. 

seedlings arc large enough for permanent setting in forest planta- 
tions or windbreaks. They may be allowed to grow in the seed 
bed another year without injury, but should be transplanted 
before the growth of the third season begins. 

Seeds of Deciduous Trees that Ripen in Autumn may be 
sown to advantage in the autumn; provided, (i) the soil is not 
of such a nature as to become too solidly packed over them 
before spring; (2) they are not liable to dry up or wash out; 
or (3) they are not subject to injuries from rodents, insects or 
other animals. In many locations some or all of these possible 
injuries may make spring sowing most desirable with most kinds 
of seeds. Our most successful nurserymen, however, prefer to 
sow in autumn, and try to bring about the conditions that make 
it successful. 

In the Matter of Storing Seeds it is difficult to lay down 
any exact rule to follow, and here, as in all other similar matters, 
considerable must be left to good judgment. As a rule, how- 
ever, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of hardy 
plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in sand out of 
doors. 

Tree Seeds that Ripen in Autumn may be divided into 
four classes, which require different methods of treatment to 
grow them, viz., dry seeds, seeds with fleshy coverings, nut seeds 
and leguminous tree seeds. 

Dry Seeds, like those of the Ash, Birch, Hard Maple and 
Boxelder, are very certain to grow when sown in the spring in 
drills as soon as the soil can be easily worked, in the same way 
as recommended for Soft Maple and Elm. If not sown until 
spring they will have to be kept over winter, and when only a 
small quantity is to be kept over this is best done by spreading 
the seeds on the surface of the hard ground, covering with an 
inverted box and digging a ditch around it to carry off the water, 
or the seeds may be mixed with sand and kept in a dry, cool 
place. Large quantities may be kept on dry ground under a 
shed. These seeds will stand considerable drying, but if allowed 
to become very dry, hot, or moist, their vitality may be injured 
or destroyed. 

Seeds with Fleshy Coverings, as those of the Cherry and 
Plum, should be kept from getting dry before planting. The best 
way to handle them is to separate them from the pulp, mix with 



SEEDS OF COXIFEROUS TREES. 79 

moist sand out of doors, and keep them moist until planted. It 
is generally safe to sow such seeds in the autumn on good land, 
but some growers prefer to sow them in the spring. This class 
of seeds requires to be frozen before germinating. If allowed to 
get dry before being frozen, they should be mixed with moist 
sand for a few days until plump, or they may be soaked in water, 
but care must be taken that they do not get water soaked. Some- 
times the dry, hard shells of such seeds seem to be waterproof. 
In this case, if the seeds are of special value, it is a good plan to 
file a hole through the shell, so as to let the seed become moist. 
Most seeds of this class grow the first year if properly handled, 
but some of them — for example, the Red Cedar and the Wild 
Thorn — even with the best management, will remain dormant in 
the ground lor one year before growing. 

Nut Seeds, as those of the Oak, Hickory and Walnut, 
should be handled as recommended for seeds with fleshy cover- 
ings, but are more sensitive about being severely dried. As they 
do not transplant readily, it is very desirable to plant them where 
they are to remain permanently. They should be covered about 
two inches deep. 

Seeds of I/egruminous Trees, as those of the Black Locust, 
Honey Locust and Cotifeetree, will stand severe drying for a 
long time and still grow, provided they are treated with hot water 
just before planting. In this case the hot water should be poured 
over the seeds shortly before they are sown, and be allowed to 
stand until cool, when it will be found that some of the seeds 
have swollen up; these should be picked out, and the remainder 
be treated again with hot water, and the process repeated until 
all have swollen. Seedlings of this class generally transplant 
readily, and are managed in the same way that is here recom- 
mended for the Ashes and JNIaples. 

Seeds of Coniferous Trees, such as Pine, Spruce, Tamarack 
and Arborvit.u, are dry and winged, but the Red Cedar has a 
lleshy, berry-like covering surrounding its seed. The seeds 
that grow in cones are most easily gathered before being shed 
from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they open, 
and then dried, after which those of most species will open, and 
the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees, as those 
of the Jack Pine, will not open without artificial heat. These 



80 ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 

can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or in an 
oven to a temperature of from lOO to 150 degrees Fahr. Seeds 
of this class grov/ readily when sown, but must be very carefully 
stored or they will lose their vitality. They should be kept simi- 
larly to the seed of the Ash and Boxelder, but are more liable 
to injury than these kinds from too much moisture or heat, and 
for this reason some careful growers prefer to always keep them 
mixed with dry sand in a cool shed. 

The seeds of the Red Cedar hang on the tree all winter, and 
must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in strong lye 
for twenty-four hours, the fleshy covering removed by rubbing 
them against a fine sieve, and then stratified in sand, where they 
will be frozen during the winter. Even with this treatment they 
will seldom grow until the second year. 

Raising Coniferous Trees from Seed. The land selected 
for sowing the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, 
preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry out 
easily. It should be so located as to have good circulation of 
air over it, that the plants may dry on quickly after rains, and it 
must be so shaded as to keep off about one-half of the sunlight. 
This latter permits a play of light and shade over the bed all 
day, and is about the condition under which we find nature rais- 
ing such seedlings where trees partially shade the ground and 
protect them from the constant rays of the sun. In practice we 
aim to secure these conditions as follows: A piece of well 
drained, rather sandy soil, in an airy place, is selected, and laid 
out in beds four feet wide. In May the seeds are sown rather 
thickly (about three good seeds to a square inch), either broad- 
cast or in rows, and covered with about one-fourth inch of sandy 
loam and then with about one-fourth inch of clear sand. Some 
of the smaller seeds, like those of White Spruce, should not be 
covered more than one-fourth inch. Before the seedlings break 
the ground, a framework, six feet above the beds, is made, and 
covered with laths, laid about one and one-half inches apart, 
running north and south, or with sufHcient brush to shut out 
about one-half the sunlight. If the bed is very much exposed 
to the winds it should have sinjilar protection on all sides. In 
such a place as this, or in woodlands where these conditions can 
be fulfilled, evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while 
if planted in the open ground most kinds are sure to fail. 



RATSlxr, C'()XIT<l'.R(^US TRKKS. 



81 



The most common cause of failure witli those who try to 
raise evergreens is what is known as "damping off," which 
occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first year. 
In such a case the seeds start well, and the seedlings grow vig- 
orously for a short time, or until we have a spell of damp 
weather, and then die ofT with great rapidity. It seems that the 
sunlight and the mud that has been spattered on the plants so 
weaken them that they arc liable to disease. For this reason 
we shade the bed, and cover with sand, which will not allow the 
mud to be spattered over the seedlings, and in very moist warm 
weather we occasionally apply dry sand to dry off the plants. 




Figure lo. Kvergreen seed bed shaded with a screen of old brush 
Dlaced on a frame. 



For most kinds of conifers the shade is required for at least two 
years. 

Coniferous tree seedlings grow very slowly when young, sel- 
dom making a growth of more than two or three inches the first 
year. The most rapid growing of our pines seldom produce a 
growth of more than sixteen inches in four years, and should 
not be moved to their permanent place until about this time. 
They should, however, be transplanted from the seed bed to a 
temporary place when two years old, to prevent crowding and 
to facilitate root growth. 

On the approach of winter the beds of coniferous seedlings 
should be covered with about three inches of straw or leaves, 
evergreen branches, or other material that will afford protec- 
tion from the sun and from alternate freezing and thawing. 

6 



S2 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

This should be removed in the spring after all danger from dry- 
ing cold winds has passed. 

Depth to Cover Seeds. Most of our tree seeds should, 
in good soil, be covered from one-half to three-quarters of an 
inch; but this is rather too much for such small seeds as the 
Birch, Alder and Cottonwood, while the Black Walnut, Native 
Plum, Acorns and other large seeds and seeds of Boxelder. 
Ash, Soft Maple and Basswood may often be covered two 
inches to advantage if the soil is somewhat dry. It is a good 
rule not to cover any tree seeds deeper than is necessary to 
secure permanent moisture, and on wet or heavy land only a 
very thin covering is desirable. If the land is very heavy, it is a 
good plan not only to cover lightly but to sow more thickly 
than usual, as a large number of seeds may be able to push up 
through the surface soil when a few would fail to do this. 

The Amount of Seeds of Deciduous Trees to Sow 
on a given area depends very much on the kind and quality of 
the seeds and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a rule, 
thick is better than thji sowing. The seeds of Boxelder, Ash 
and Maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed 
to the square inch; Elm and Birch should be sown twice as 
thick. Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed 
about one inch of row for each good seed. Black Walnut, But- 
ternut, Hickory and similar seeds should preferably be planted 
three or four in a place, and all but one seedling cut out when 
nicely started. If sown in drills they should be placed from 
three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding does not seem 
to be any hindrance to the making of a good growth by seed- 
lings of mosl; of our broad-leaved trees the first year, but if left 
thick in the seed bed the second year they are often seriously 
stunted. On this account such seedlings should be transplanted 
or thinned out before the beginning of the second year. In 
nursery planting it is a good plan to sow in freshly stirred land, 
as the seeds are far more likely to get a good start in it than in 
soil that has remained untilled long enough to become crusty 
and lumpy. Then, if the seeds are planted immediately after 
cultivation has been given, and while the soil is still moist, they 
have at least as good a chance as the weeds to start, while oth- 
erwise the weeds are soon ahead of the seedlings. 

It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between 



MKTGHT OF ONE-YEAR SEEDLINGS. 



83 



the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed 
until at least the middle of July, after which they may sometimes 
be left to advantage to afiford winter protection; but in the case 
of very small seedlings this protection is best given by a light 
mulch, put on in autumn and taken off in spring, and the weeds 
should be kept out. 

If the seeds of Red Cedar, the Thorn, Mountain Ash. and 
other seeds that require a long tinii to start, are sown in the 
spring, and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the bed 
with about an inch or two of hay or leaves, keep out weeds, 
and let this mulch remain until the following spring, when the 
seeds will probably be in condition to grow, and the mulch 
should then be removed. 



TABI^E .SHOWING THE APPRO.XIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OI.D 
SEEDIJNGS GROWN ON GOOD AVER.^GE SOIL IN MINNESOTA. 



Botanical Names. 



Common Names. 



Height in 
Inches. 



Phnis sirobus White Pine 

Piniis Jlexilis Western White Pine 

Pinits resinosa Red Pine 

Pin us divayicala Jack Pine 

Pin us pondi'rosa scofiii/oi um Rock Pine 

Pinus sylvcshis Scotch Pine 

I 
Pinus laricio austriaca 

Larix laricina 

l.arix eurofiea \ European I.arch 

Picfa canadensis White Spruce . . . 

Picea mariana Black Spruce . 

Picea puni^/'us 

Picea engeUnanni 

Picea fxcelsa 



Austrian Pine 
Tamarack 



Blue Spruce 

Engelmann Spruce 
Norway .Spruce 



Tsuga canadensis t Hemlock 



Pseudotsuga taxi/olia . 

Abies balsamea 

Abies concolor 



Douglas Spruce , 

Balsam Fir 

White Fir 



84 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL 

IN MINNESOTA. {.Continued.) 



Botanical Names. 



Common Names. 



Height in 
Inches. 



Thuja occidenialis 

Jtiniperus virginiana . 
Juniperiis com»iunis . . 

Juglans nigra 

Juglans cinerea 

Hico)ia ova/a 

Hicoria minima 

Sali.x nigra 

Salix amygddloidi's . .. 

Saltx alba 

Salix lucida 

Popiilus tremuloides . . 
Populiis giandideftta . 
Popiilus bahamifera . 

Popiilus dclloidt'S 

Bttula papyrifera 

Betiila alba 

Bel Ilia 111 lea 

Oslrya virginiana ... 

Carpinns caroliuiana 

Quercus alba 

Quercus maciocai pa . 

Quercus rubra 

Quercus cocci iiea 

Ulmus americana . .. . 

Ulmus racemosa 

Ulmus piibesceiii 

Celt is occidenlalis 

Morus rubra 



Arborvitte 

Red Cedar 

Common Juniper 

Black Walnut , 

Butternut 

Shellbark Hickory 

Bitternut Hickory- 

Black Willow 

Peachleaf Willow 

White Willow 

Shining Willow 

Aspen 

Largetooth Poplar 

Balsam Poplar 

Cottonwood 

Canoe Birch 

European White Birch 

Yellow Birch 

Hop Hornbeam 

Blue Beach 

White Oak 

Bur Oak 

Red Oak 

Scarlet Oak 

White Elm 

Cork Elm 

Slippery Elm 

Hackberry 

Red Mulberry 



2 
3 
2 

12 

12 

8 

4 

10 

10 

10 

6 

10 

12 

10 

16 

4-8 

6-10 

4-8 

4-6 

4-6 

4-8 

4-8 

6-12 

6-12 

6-12 

6-10 

10-20 

8-10 

6-10 



IIJCIGIIT Ul- ONK-YEAR SEKDLINGS. 



So 



TAI!I,K SHOWING THE Ari'ROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR 

OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL 

IN MINNESOTA. iContinucd.y 



Botanical Names. 



Common Nasje.s. 



Height in 
Inches. 



^ fonts alba tarlarica 

I'yyus iocnsis 

f'yrus americana 

Pvriis sambucifolia 

. \ melanchier canadensis. 
( 'lalargns Inmentosa .... 

/'; units aniericana 

/'runus pennsylvanica . . 

/'run IIS seio/ina 

I'l units 'i'iiginiana 

Gletiilsia Iriacanllios .... 

Gymnocladus dioicus 

Robinia pseiidacacia 

Acer saccharum 

Acer platanoidcs 

/ cer riibru in 

Acei- saccharinum 

Acer pennsylvanicitm . . .. 

\cey iai iai icitni 

Acer negunxio 

. Escitlus liippocasia n urn 

. Escitlus glabra 

Rhamnus catharliiits . .. 

Til I a americana 

f-'laeagnits augusli/olia . 
Fraximts americana . ... 

Fraxinus lanceolata 

Fraximts nigra 

Catalpa speciosa 

Viburnum lentago 



Russian Mulberry 

Wild Crab 

American Mountain A.sh 
Klderleaf Mountain Ash. 

Junel>erry 

Black Thorn 

Wild IMuni 

Wild Red Cherry 

Wild Black Cherrj- 

Choke Cherry 

Honey I<ocust 

CofTectree 

I.ocust 

Sugar Maple 

Norway Maple 

Red Maple 

Soft Maple 

Striped Maple 

Tartarian Maple 

Boxelder 

Horse Chestnut 

Ohio Buckeye 

Buckthorn 

Basswood 

Russian Olive 

White Ash 

Green Ash 

Black Ash 

Hardy Catalpa 

Black Haw 



6-12 

4-8 

8 

4-8 

8 

4-8 

15 

VI 

12 

12 

8-12 

8-12 

24 

12 

12 

10 

24 

4 

4 

12 

f> 

4-6 

6-12 

6-12 

12 

12 

12 

8 

24 

4-6 



86 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



CUTTINGS. 

Cuttings are pieces of the branches or roots which have the 
power of growing and forming new plants when placed in moist 
sand, soil or other material. For example, the pieces of the 
twigs on branches of many kinds of willows and poplars, when 
taken while the tree is dormant, will root when placed in moist 
soil, but there are few other trees that grow as readily from cut- 
tings as these. Cuttings of the roots of many kinds of trees, 
as the White Poplar, Wild Plum, Yellow Locust, and many 
others that sprout from the roots, will grow if treated about the 
same way as branch cuttings. 

In growing trees from cuttings the source of the cuttings is 
not of so great importance as the source of the seed from which 
the stock trees were grown, for the qualities of individual trees 
are probably not permanently or greatly changed by climate. 
For instance, trees grown from the cuttings of Russian Poplars 
would be as hardy in Minnesota if the cuttings came from St. 
Louis, where they had been growing for years, as they would be 
if imported direct from Siberia. However, owing to a longer 
growing season at St. Louis, the wood might be of a more open 
texture, and perhaps might not resist cold as well as Minnesota- 
grown wood; but after one season's growth in Minnesota it 
would probably be as hardy. The same would hold true of 
plants propagated by any method of division. With the excep- 
tion of Willows and Poplars, very few of our ornamental trees 
grow readily from cuttings. The best time to make cuttings is 
in the fall, as soon as the leaves will strip easily from the twigs. 
Most of the willows and poplars will grow readily from cuttings 
made in the spring, and even those made in summer will gener- 
ally grow if planted in moist soil. For this purpose the smaller 
branches with the leaves removed should be used. They may 
also be rooted from growing twigs with the leaves left on, pro- 
vided the cut surfaces are placed in water, as they would be if 
stuck in the soil of a swamp or treated the same as cuttings of 
geraniums. These latter ways, however, are not to be depended 
upon for general propagation purposes. 

The Form and Size of Cuttings is a matter upon which 
there is great difference of opinion. Cuttings of the Willow 
from one bud each and only an incli or two long up to those a 



I'KOPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 



87 



foot or more in diameter and ten or twelve feet in length can 
generally be made to grow, but probably the most convenient 
size for general planting is one-half inch in diameter and twelve 
inches in length. They are generally tied in bunches of lOO or 
200 each for convenience in handling, and care should be taken 
to keep all the butt ends one way to facilitate planting. Very 
large cuttings arc liable to decay in the 
center, and are not best to use, although 
they often make a very rapid growth. 
Poles of willows and poplars are some- 
times laid in furrows where they will gen- 
erally sprout wherever the bark is laid 
bare and often make good trees. 

In Planting Cuttings of ordinary 
size it is a good plan to have the soil loose, 
and then, after marking off the rows, the 
cuttings can be pushed into the land the 
proper depth. If not desirable to plow 
all the land, it may be loosened just where 
the rows are io come. Where a subsoil 
plow can be obtained, it can be made very 
useful for this purpose. 

Cuttings should be planted at an angle 
of about forty-five degrees, leaving only one bud above the sur- 
face of the groimd and the soil should be packed firmly around 




Figure 11. A bunch 
of willow cuttings. 




Figure 12. Planted cuttings, showing angle and depth 
at which to plant cuttings. 



them. Those set in a slanting position settle wfth the soil and 
remain firm, while those set vertically "mav become loosened 
by the settling of the soil near them, leaving too much of them 
exposed above the surface, unless very great care is exercised 
in planting. The rows in the nursery should be about four feet 
apart, and tlic cuttings about six inches apart in the rows, though 



88 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

a much less distance may sometimes be sufficient. In packing 
the soil over the cuttings great pains should be taken to get it 
very solid around the lower end, and if the soil is very dry, the 
firmest pressure of the full weight of a man over the base of each 
cutting is not too great; in fact, when the soil is dry it cannot be 
made too firm over the cutting. When the soil is moist, how- 
ever, only enough pressure should be used to bring the par- 
ticles in close contact and close up the air spaces. 

The Cultivation of Cuttings should commence shortly 
after they are planted, and the top soil should be kept loosened 
to the depth of about three inches, which, while not disturbing 
the solid soil around the base of the cuttings, prevents evapora- 
tion from the soil. 

Time of Planting Cuttings. Spring cuttings may be 
planted at once where they are to grow. Autumn cuttings may 
be planted out at once, provided the land is not wet, but when 
planted at this season they should be covered with soil turned 
toward them with a plow. In the spring this covering should 
be raked ofi before the buds swell. The ground being warm in 
autumn often causes autumn-planted cuttings of some kinds to 
root before cold weather sets in, and if made up before the first 
of October they may thus score quite a gain over spring-planted 
cuttings. If not desirable to plant in the autumn, the bundles 
of cuttings may be kept over winter, buried in moist soil, prefer- 
ably that which is somewhat sandy, where there is no standing 
water; but much care should be taken to keep them from dry- 
ing out. To this end the bundles should be buried so as not to 
touch each other, and have two or three inches of soil packed in 
between them. If they are kept in a cellar, moist sawdust will 
be found to be good material to keep them in. 

The amount of growth made by cuttings varies much, accord- 
ing to the kind of plant, size of cuttings, soil, etc. The most of 
our willows will make a growth of three or four feet, on good 
soil, in one season, from ordinary cuttings. 

The Solar Pit. There are many trees that will not grow 
from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little before 
planting. This is most easily accomplished by means of what is 
called the "solar pit," which owes its success to the fact that cut- 
tings root first at the warmer end. It is made and used as fol- 




LAVl'.RS. 89 

lows: Tlic buiulk's of rultings arc hoclcd in as rccomniciidcd. 
In the spring they arc taken out, and bnried close together, with 
the butt ends uppermost, in a warm sunny spot, and covered 
with about six inches of soil. A hotbed frame, with sash, is then 
put over the spot, to warm the soil. Sometimes, instead of 

using sash, the soil over the cut- 
tings is covered with a foot or 
more of fermenting manure. In 
either case the soil is warmed, 
and the formation of roots 

encouraged. In using the solar 
Figure 13. The solar pit, -^ ^1 .• u u 

showing bundles of cuttings pit the rootmg process should 
in place under glass. ^^^^ y^g carried so far as to permit 

roots to show plainly, as they are liable to be broken off in 
planting out; but the cuttings should be planted out as soon as 
they show signs of healing over on the butt end. 'JMiis healing- 
over process is called callousing, and in many plants neces- 
sarily precedes the formation of roots. 



I/ayers arc portions of the branches of trees, shrubs or vines 
which are covered with earth without being separated from the 
parent plant and there take root and grow. These are cut off 
from the main plant in autumn or spring, and form new plants. 
-Mmost all trees and other plants can be rooted in this way, but, 
while some root very easily, others require so long a time to do 
so as to make it impracticable with them. 

The growing of trees from layers is seldom practiced in this 
country, but in some European nurseries it is a common means 
l)y which to increase special varieties of trees. For this purpose 
what is commonly known as mound layering is often used. 
This consists simply of drawing the soil up around the sprouts 
that come from the stump of a tree, covering the base of them 
about a foot in depth. It may be done at any time of the year 
after the sprouts are two or more feet high, but preferably in the 
spring. After the sprouts have become well rooted they may be 
removed in spring or autumn and treated the same as seedlings. 
Layering is sometimes practiced in European forests to fill up 
vacancies, and a similar method is often employed in nurseries. 



90 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



GRAFTAGE. 

Graftage refers to the growing of one plant on the stem, root 
or branch of another plant. There are several forms of graftage, 
which are generally known as grafting, budding and inarching. 
It is a common practice to use graftage in the growing of the 
different varieties of fruit trees, and it is also used to some 
extent in the growing of some of the varieties of ornamental 
trees that cannot be grown from seed. Trees that are grown by 
any form of graftage are seldom as long-lived as those grown on 
their own roots, and these methods should be avoided when it 
is practicable to do so. These methods are not much used in 
common practice, and consequently are not discussed at length 
here. 

Inarching is a rather unusual way of growing plants. It 
works on the principle that when the growing stems, branches 
and roots of the same or closely allied plants are held closely 
together for some time they become united. Such unions of 
roots are frequently found in woodlands; in some cases the 
roots of the same trees, and in others the roots of dififerent trees, 
become grown together. Occasionally also trees are found 
grown together by their branches or stems. Inarching is some- 
times used for growing the Cutleaf Birch, in which case the 
sprouts from a stump of a Cutleaf Birch, or the twigs from a 
small tree laid on the ground, are tied to small Birch seedlings, 
which have been grown in pots and plunged to their f ims in the 
ground near the tree. In doing this the bark is removed for 
about two inches at the point of contact of the twig and seed- 
ling, which are then tied firmly together. It should be done by 
the middle of June, but will often be successful if done even a 
month later. They should be kept together until the leaves fall, 
and then the branches from the parent tree should be cut away, 
leaving the seedlings with the twigs grown fast to them. These 
should be carefully heeled-in over winter, and in the spring the 
seedlings should be cut ofT just above the union, so as to throw 
all their strength into the adopted twig of the Cutleaf Birch. 
This method may also be used to replace lost branches on trees 
or vines. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NURSERY PRACTICE. 

Nursery. This term is applied to a plot of land used for 
raising plants that are intended for planting elsewhere for their 
final growth. 

Soil and Cultivation. The best soil for a general nursery 
is a deep, rich, reasonably level, retentive upland. It is cus- 
tomary to grow most of the nursery crops in rows, so tliat they 
may be readily cultivated. The land should be plowed deeply 
when the crop is planted, and the surface soil kept loose and 
fine during all the early part of the growing season, or until 
about the middle of July. If the land that has to be used for 
a nursery is rather shallow, it should be gradually deepened by 
plowing from year to year, and, if inclined to dry out, the addi- 
tion of large quantities of organic matter, together with constant 
cultivation, will do much to remedy these defects. 

The cultivation of a nursery or young forest plantation, pro- 
vided the latter is planted in rows, should consist in keeping 
the land stirred to the depth of three inches, thus giving a dust 
blanket, which will protect from drouth. After the first of 
August much cultivation is likely to encourage a late autumn 
growth, which should be avoided; but a moderate quantity of 
buckwheat or oats may be sown then, and be allowed to grow 
the remainder of the season, to serve as a winter protection — to 
hold snows, and prevent the heaving out of the young seedlings 
by frost. 

GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 

Nursery stock of different kinds has come to be known by 
such convenient names as seedlings, transplants, street trees, for- 
est-pulled seedlings, etc. 



02 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Seedlings are young plants, grown from seed, that have never 
been transplanted, and are generally designated by their size or 




Figure i^. A bunch of Green Ash Seedlings. 

age. They form the cheapest class of nursery stock, and are 
used largely for starting windbreaks. 

Transplants are seedlings that have been at least once trans- 
planted, and are designated by the size and number of times they 
have been moved. They are higher in price than seedlings, but 
with some kinds of trees they are much more likely to grow, 
and may be well worth the extra price. Evergreens, especially 
pines, will seldom do well unless once transplanted before being 
set in a permanent place. 

Street Trees include the trees of large size which are used 
for street, shade and ornamental purposes. To be of the best 
quality they should have been transplanted two or more times 
and have received some attention in the way of pruning so as to 
give them a good form. Such trees vary much in quality and 
price, but the best are necessarily rather expensive. 

Forest-pulled Deciduous Trees of small size can often be 
obtained at a very low price, and may be as desirable as those 
that arc nursery grown. 

Forest-pulled Fvergreen Seedlings rnay also be desirable, 
but too often they have poor roots, or have been so injured by 
poor handling that they are generally worthless. 

Forest-pulled Shade Trees sometimes grow very well, but 
they are always inferior to good nursery-grown trees. They are 
greatly improved by having their roots shortened two years 
before they are to be removed, and when so treated grow very 
well. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Transplanting is Simply the Removal of the Plant. 

It may be to some permanent place, as a park, lawn, or street, 
or it may be done for the purpose of improving the root system, 



TRANSPLANTING. 



93 



and to give the tree more room to grow. By shortening the 
long roots the root system is made more compact and better 
able to withstand subsequent removal. This may be done by 
transplanting, or by cutting around the tree with a spade or tree 
digger. It is especially desirable to do this to trees that arc not 
easily moved on account of tiieir long branching roots, such as 
the Birch, or to those that have tap roots, like the Oak and 
Walnut. It is on account of their having had their roots short- 
ened so they can all be moved with the tree that nursery-grown 
Irocs arc- ;j;c'ncrally su]K'rior to others. 

In Transplanting it is Important to take up a sutlicient 
amount of roots to support the plant, and as a rule the more 
roots the better the conditions for growth. Very long roots 




Figure 15. Extra good roots on a forest- 
grown Elm, used as a street tree. 

should be shortened unless the tree is removed to a permanent 
place, in which case all the good roots should be left on the tree. 
All bruised or broken roots should be cut off in either case, and 
the top of the tree shortened to correspond. In transplanting 
trees tliey should be set one or two inches lower than they for- 
merly stood, and the roots should be spread out in the holes 
without crowding. It is customary to plant many kinds of small 
trees in furrows made with a plow. 

Very I^arge Trees (those over six inches in diameter) are 
sometimes successfully planted in winter, by taking them up 
with a ball of earth. This is done by digging a trench around 
the tree, late- in the autumn, deep enough to cut most of the 



94 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

roots, but far enough away from the tree to leave a large ball of 
earth. The trench is then filled in with a mulch of some kind, 
and when the ground is frozen the tree is moved, with the ball 
of earth attached, to the hole which has been previously prepared 
and kept free from frost. 

After Trees Have Been Moved, or had their roots short- 
ened in some other way. they should generally not be transplanted 
again for at least one or two years, during which time they will 
have overcome the injuries done to their root system. The time 
which should thus elapse will vary with the kind of tree, and 
also with the amount of injury done. Where the injury is 
severe a much longer time will be required for recovery than 
where it is slight. 

Time to Transplant. Planting of trees should always be 
done when they are dormant, or just as they start into growth in 
the spring, which is generally from the middle to last of April. 
If for any reason it is desirable to risk the moving of trees late 
in the spring, after the leaves have started, they should be cut 
back severely, all the leaves removed, and great pains be taken 
to secure all the roots and to prevent their drying out. Very 
hardy deciduous trees, as the Elm, Cottonwood, Boxelder and 
Ash, can often be successfully moved in the fall, if the ground is 
moist at the time of removal, but great care must be taken to 
work the soil in very compactly between the roots, so that there 
will be no large air spaces among them. If the trees are large, 
it is a good plan to stake them, so they cannot be blown about 
by the wind. The more tender trees should not be transplanted 
in this section in autumn, and even the hardiest kinds should 
never be moved at this season unless the soil is moist. 

Transplanting Kvergreens. "When seedling evergreens are 
two years old they should be transplanted, and this should be 
done about once in three years afterwards, until they are moved 
to their permanent places. As evergreens are very sensitive to 
being moved, this requires more care than with most deciduous 
trees. The most important point is to not all jw the roots to 
have even the appearance of being dry. They may be trans- 
planted in the spring, as soon as the ground works easily and the 
roots have white tips, and they may be safely transplanted even 
up to the time that the new growth shows about an inch, but at 



TRANSPLANTING. 95 

this late time more care must be taken in doing the work than 
when it is done earlier. Evergreens can sometimes be moved 
successfully in August, or even in the autumn, if they are to be 
carried only a short distance and the conditions of the weather 
and land are favorable; but this is not a time for general plant- 
ing, and it is seldom arlvisahle to do it at this season. 

The Very General Error is Current that June is the best 
time to plant out evergreens. They may be transplanted at this 
season successfully if the conditions are just right in every par- 
ticular, but they are much more liable to failure than when the 
work is done earlier in the season. At whatever time of the 
year evergreens are to be moved, the work should be done in 
such a manner as to protect the roots from having even the 
appearance of being dry, for if dried ever so little the probabili- 
ties of their living are much lessened. The kind of treatment 
that would be considered all right for apple trees might be fatal 
to evergreens, as thc^' are much more susceptible to injury from 
drying. 

In addition to the above precautions to be taken when mov- 
ing evergreens, it is desirable to shorten back the limbs about 
one-third, to compensate for the loss of roots. Of course this 
shortening should not be done in such a way as to disfigure the 
tree, but, when the roots are in. any way severely mutilated, the 
whole top makes more of a draft on them for moisture than the 
roots can supply. This pruning is not so necessary in the case 
of young seedling evergreens or nursery-grown trees that have 
been recently transplanted, for when they are moved their root 
systems are not seriously injured. 

Very Small Evergreens and Other Small Plants are 
often set in irciichcs made with a spade, as shown in figure l6. 
For this method the soil must be loose, and yet sufficiently com- 
pact so that it can be cut with a spade and not crumble before 
the plants can be set out. The beds are made about six feet 
wide, and a board of this length and six inches wide should be 
used. The soil is thrown out with a spade (A) to the depth of 
about six inches, but no wider than necessary to just take in the 
roots. The plants are then placed in position by hand, and a 
little soil pushed against them to hold them in place. (5) The 
trench is then half filled and the soil firmly compacted by the feet. 
The remainder of the soil is then put in and leveled off, the 



96 



liLEMENTARY FOREvSTRY. 



board is changed to the ©ther side of the row first planted and 
the planting is continued in the same way. (C and D) Such 
close planting as this is only desirable when it is intended to 
give special care to the plants, as by shading or watering. 
Plants should not remain more than two or three years in so 
close a bed before they are transplanted. When it is desirable 
to set out small seedlings in rows, instead of beds, a tight line 
may be used in place of the board. 

Heeling in. This term is applied to the temporary covering 
of the roots of trees with earth to keep them from drying out 
after they are dug and until they are planted. If they are to be 
kept for only a few days, comparatively little care is needed in 




Figure i6. Successive steps in planting young evergreen or other 
very small seedlings, (a) Board in place and trench partly opened. 
(&) Seedlings in place and partly covered, (c) New trench partly 
opened, (rf) New trench with seedlings in place. 



covering; but if they are to be kept for several weeks, or over 
winter, especially if the weather is dry, great care must be taken 
to work the fine soil in among the roots and to pack it solid. A 
good way of doing this is as follows: Select a dry, mellow piece 
of gromid, and dig a trench just large enough to take in the 
roots of the trees when laid close together in a single row. 
Place the trees or seedlings in this trench, in an upright position, 
a few at a time, and cover the roots firmly and deeply with soil 
taken from close in front of the first trench, thus making a trench 
for the next row. In this section, if Maples, Cherries and other 
trees not of the greatest hardiness are to remain heeled in all 
winter, it is a good plan to bend the tops down and cover with 



PRUNING. 



9t 



earth. This is only necessary for winter protection. The neglect 
to properly heel in nursery stock as soon as it is received is 
undoubtedly a frequent cause of failure. 

Trees and cuttings will sometimes get so dry in shipment 
that the l)ark shrivel-. In Mich cases the best treatment is to 





■ -';'.■'.•>. 



Figure 17. Heeling-in. Various stages of the operation: Row of trees 
with roots covered; row hent down and tlie tops eovered. 

i)ury them eiuirely for a few days, which will often enable them 
to recover. Soaking in water will answer the same purpose, but 
unless very carefully done is likely to injure the wood. 



PRUNING. 

Pruning should be avoided as much as possible, and yet be 
done sufficiently to secure the efifect desired. If it is begun early 
in the life of a tree no large branches need ever be removed, the 
most desirable pruning being the directing of the growth by 
pinching oil xhc 1)U(N lliat would develop into undesirable 
branches: but this is impracticable on a large scale, and for this 
reason, in ordinary practice, it is often necessary to do more 
extensive pruning. 

The Purpose in Pruning Trees is to give them forms 
that are desirable for the purpose intended. For example, a tree 
for the lawn or windbreak may be most desirable when covered 
with branches even down to the ground, while street trees should 
have a trunk free from branches for eight or ten feet from the 
ground. Many of the evergreens, and some other trees used for 
7 



98 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

ornament, naturally take on so regular and desirable a form that 
it is not necessary to prune them, except perhaps to pinch or cut 
off an extra leading shoot that is likely to make a forked top, 
while the White Elm, Soft Maple, and others need occasional 
pruning to remove or shorten awkward branches, at least while 
the tree is young and growing rapidly. 

The Proper Time for Pruning is determined by the 
effect of the operation upon the health of the tree. Dead 
branches may be safely removed at any season. The removal of 
live branches during the growing season lessens the leaf sur- 
face, and hence checks growth. Pruning when the tree is dor- 
mant results in a more vigorous growth in the remaining 
branches. Wounds made by pruning just as trees are starting 
into growth do not heal over as readily as those made earlier 
in the spring, or during the period of active growth in June. 
Wounds made in autumn or early winter generally heal over 
well, but are more likely to cause bad injuries than if made at 
the close of the winter. These considerations and practical expe- 
rience have brought about the following conclusions as to the 
l)cst time for pruning: 

I^arge Branches are Most Safely Removed during the 
latter part of winter, before growth starts. Small branches may 
be safely removed at this time, or during the growing season, 
preferably about the middle of June; but such very hardy trees 
as the Elm, Ash, Boxelder, White Willow and Cottonwood 
may be safely pruned at any time in autumn, winter or spring, 
while the Mountain Ash, Apple, Plum and Wild Cherry are lia- 
l)]e to injury if pruned at any but the most favorable seasons. 

Among the Directions to be Followed in Good Prun- 
ing are the following: 

(i) Do not cut off a single branch unless you have a good 
idea of what you wish to accomplish and the probable effect of so 
doing on the tree; better not prune at all than to do it without 
considering the consequences. 

(2) Avoid doing very much pruning at one time, especially on 
small street trees, which, if they have all their branches removed 
from the trunks to their final height, are likely to make too much 
growth at the top for the trunk to support well in high winds. 
A better way is to remove a 'part of the lower branches and 



PRUNING. 99 

shorten back in suninier those that are to be removed later; by 
such treatment a large part of the strength of the tree goes into 
the top without increasing the size of the lower branches, which 
may be removed in a year or two without injury to the tree. 

(3) After pruning paint the wounds with good white lead 
paint, to keep the wood from decaying and the injuries from thus 
becoming permanent. This is not so necessary on very hardy 
trees as on those that are somewhat tender. 

(4) Where branches rub together it is generally best to 
remove one of them. 

(5) Where bad crotches are being formed by the develop- 
ment of two leaders, severely check the growth of one of them 
by shortening it, thus throwing more sap into the other and 
making it the leading shoot. 

(6) Prevent the formation of long side branches by shorten- 
ing those that are liable to become too long. This is especially 
desirable with the Soft Maple, which has a tendency to form 
long branches that arc likely to break oft unless occasionally 
pruned. 

(7) Where trees have lost their leaders, prune so as to 
develop one of the side branches into a leading shoot. This the 
tree always attempts to do itself, but a little judicious pruning 
will greatly aid it. 

(8) Every species of tree and shrub has its own natural 
form, and in pruning do not try to make all of them of one 
shape. Study the natural form of each kind of tree, and encour- 
age the development of this form. 

(9) When trees are full of frost the wood cracks very easily; 
therefore do not prune in very cold weather, for bad wounds 
may then be easily formed. 

Treatment of Crooked Trees. It is common to have some 
trees in the nursery that are of vigorous, healthy growth, but so 
crooked as to be nearly worthless. The proper treatment for 
most of our shade trees when in this condition in the nursery, 
if anything is to be made of them, is to cut them ofif at the sur- 
face of the ground, early in the spring, and then select one of the 
good, strong sprouts that come from the roots of each tree, 
train it into a straight stem, and cut away the others. Treated in 
this way well-formed trees may joon be grown. Such treatment 
may also be desirable with small street trees that have their stems 

L.cfC. 



l'M> ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

hopelessly injured. However, trees that to the novice may seem 
hopelessly crooked may only have crooks in them tliat will be 
outgrown in a few years. 

STREET TREES. 

Success with Street Trees is perhaps more dependent on 
good soil about the roots than on any other one factor. If the 
land is so very sandy or gravelly as to be subject to drouth, at 
least two cubic yards (two full two-horse loads) should be taken 
from where each tree is to be planted and the same amount of 
good clay or loam substituted for it. If in subsequent years the 
trees outgrow the limits of the material supplied, more of it 
should be added, and if this consists largely of stable manure, 
so much the better, provided it does not come into contact with 
the roots of the trees. It is important to do this work thor- 
oughly, for one tree well planted is better than a dozen poorly 
set out. 

Kinds of Trees. The best trees for street planting in this 
section are the White Elm, Hackberry, Green Ash, Basswood, 
Boxekkr and Soft Maple. All of these trees do well in good 
soil, and with the exception of the Soft Maple they all do well 
in rather inferior land. Evergreens may sometimes be used to 
advantage along narrow drives, but they are seldom desirable as 
street trees. The trees planted should be about two to four 
inches in diameter near the ground, eight or ten feet high, and 
of thrift}^ growth. Much larger trees arc sometimes set out, but 
it is not advisable, as a rule, to plant those that are over four 
inches in diameter. Smaller trees are often planted and do well 
if properly cared for, but need more attention in directing their 
growth than those that are larger. But small, thrifty trees are 
much better for street planting than large stunted trees. In all 
cases it is more important to have plenty of good roots than a 
large top, as a top can soon be developed if the roots are good. 

Distance Apart. The distance between trees depends on 
the kind planted and the quality of the land. On rich land in 
this section the trees named should be put forty feet apart, in 
fairly good soil about thirty feet, and in poor soil twenty feet 
apart. This gives sufficient room for good development, but 
where a quick effect is wanted it is a good plan to set the trees 



STREF/r TRKRS. K'1 

much thicker than this, and use Cottonwood, Willow or similar 
fast-.yrowiufi trees to alternate with one of the kinds named as 
desiral)le, with the expectation of cutting out the less valuahle 
when it shall have commenced to crowd the more desirable 
kinds. 

Planting. Provided the soil is in the proper condition, the 
next consideration is the proper planting of the tree. The prep- 
aration for this should consist in digging a hole of sufificient size 
to take in the roots without crowding. If the subsoil is very 
solid clay, it should he thoroughly loosened up. and where prac- 
ticable it is a good plan to dig a trench to the loose soil over a 
water pipe or sewer, fur by this means the roots get into loose 
so'l, and drainage is secure, which is often much needed on such 
land. Sometimes a very stiff hardpan can be broken u]) to 
advantage by exploding a small dynamite cartridge in a deep 
hole made with a crowbar. 

Before Setting the tree, it should have all broken and 
dead roots cut off. It should then be set an inch or two deeper 
than it had been growing, the discoloration above the roots indi- 
cating the depth at which it had stood. If, however, good drain- 
age cannot be secured, the tree can be planted less deeply, and 
then have a mound made around it. Fill in about the roots 
slowly, being careful (should the tree have a great number of 
fibrous roots) to work the earth well in among them and under 
the butt of the tree. Fine soil, free from large stones, should be 
used for this purpose. Pack the soil in firmly, if reasonably dry. 
with the heels, or, better still, with a rammer, making it as solid 
as possible aroimd the roots. The object in doing this is to 
leave no air spaces about them. It is not a good plan to put 
water into the hole before the tree is set. but it may be put in 
when the roots are just covered and allowed to soak away before 
the remaining soil is put in. .As a rule, however, little is gained 
by watering if the trees have not leafed out and the moist soil is 
packed firmly around the roots. Water is most needed after 
growth starts. 

Mulching. Newly planted street trees are much helped by 
a mulch of straw, hay or well-rotted manure. The latter is best, 
as it also furnishes ]dant food, but hot manure is liable to injure 
the trunk if piled against it. These materials prevent the soil 



102 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



from drying out, and this is especially beneficial if the trees are 
artificially watered. 

Watering should be done thoroughly or not at all. One 
good watering should keep the ground moist for two or three 
weeks, in the driest weather we have, if the land is heavily 
mulched when the water is applied. For a good watering in a 
dry time about one barrel of water should be given to each street 
or lawn tree. A hollow should be made around the tree and 
covered with mulch before the water is applied. This same 
amount of water might be applied at the rate of one or two pail- 
fuls a day, and not be of the least benefit to the tree, if applied to 
the bare surface of the ground. 



i#|:''^7 








Figure iS. Soft Maple Figure 19. vSoft Maple Figure 20. Soft Maple 

not pruned since it was once pruned showing .several times pruned 

planted out. I,ia1>le to close head that is not preserving a main cen- 

break in its crotches at liable to break d'lwn. A tral axis. A good form, 

any time. A bad form, good form. 



The Pruning of Street Trees at the time they are set 
out is an important matter. If the trees are very tall and slen- 
der, it is a good plan to cut them off at about ten feet from the 
ground, and trim ofi all side branches, as shown in figure 21. 
For trees that have been pulled from the woods this is generally 
the best treatment, while for nursery-grown trees that have had 
plenty of room to develop a good top it may sometimes be best 
to trim so as to leave part of the top. If the trees are trimmed 
to bare poles before planting, some little pruning will be 



STKKKT TREES. 



103 



required each season for a number of years to develop good 
tops, while if they had well formed tops in the nursery and were 
shortened back at planting time much less 
attention will be necessary. 

In a row of Elms or other trees thcr'.' 
will often be found peculiar individual 
shapes. Some of the trees will take 
on desirable forms, while others will be 
spreading and awkward, and perhaps have 
a tendency to crack in the branches. In 
some cases a little extra pruning will bring 
such unfortunates into shape, but often they 
are incorrigible, and are best replaced by 
other trees with better forms. 

Protection should always be given street 
trees as soon as they are set out, and this 
should consist of something that will pro- 
tect them from sun-scald, gnawing of horses 
and wliittling by thoughtless boys. A good 
temporary cover is afforded by wrapping 
the trunk with gunny sacking or similar 
Figure 21. Elm street material, but a more desirable protection is 
rcc properly trimmed afforded by a slatted wooden frame or box 



f(ir planting out. 



for each tree, 



CHAPTER VIII. 

FOREST PROTECTION. 



INJURIES TO TREES. 

The causes of injury to tree .STOwth are irany and various, 
some affcctinc'- principally the cultivated trees in windbreaks and 
shelterbelts, and others affecting the forest plantations and large 
areas of timber. Some injure or destroy the trees or tree seeds, 
and others do damage to the land on which they grow. 

Saw-Flies and Tent-Caterpillars. At piesent perhaps the 
most serious injuries to cultivated trees in this section result 
from the neglect to take precautions against leaf-eating insects, 
such as saw-flies and tent-caterpillars. These injuries may be 

largely prevented by 
the use of Paris Green, 
in a liquid form, ap- 
plied by means of a 
force pump, using the 
solutions from a barrel 
carried in a wagon or 
on a stone boat. An 
ordinary spraying noz- 
zle should be used, 
with a sufficient length 
of hose to reach up 
into the tree. In order 
to reach the tops of the 
trees it may be neces- 
sary to have a raised 
platform on the wagon, 
and to attach the noz- 
zle to the end of a long 
bamboo pole. In most 
prairie groves this is 
practicable, but with very high trees it is very difficult if not 
entirely impracticable, 




Figure 22. Elm tree that has been 
planted five year.s and was pruned to 
a bare pole when set out. 



INJURIES TO TRICES. 



im 



Borers and lyice. These sometimes cause serious injury, 
but it is seldom inacticablc to comljat them successfully. It is 
generally better to avoid them by planting the kinds that are 
least subject to injury from their attacks. Where lice are injuri- 
ous, kerosene emulsion or strong tobacco water are good reme- 
dies. In the case of small trees that can be easily inclosed in a 
tent, the best remedy is tobacco smoke. 




Figure 23. White Willow windbreak .^eriou.sly injured by successive 
attacks of saw-fly larvic. A common source of injury to willows. 

Mice and Rabbits. Seedlin-^s and small trees of some 
k'-nds are liable to injury from rodents, such as mice and rab- 
bits, which gnaw the bark near the surface of the ground, and 
perhaps girdle the tree. They are most likely to do this when 
the ground is covered with snow, for this furnishes them witli 
a protection under which they can do their mischief witho:it 
fear of being molested. In the case of small seedlings such 
injuries may be largely prevented by plowing a furrow or set- 
ting boards on edge around the seed bed. If, after each snow- 
fall, the snow is trodden down so as to make a solid path 
between the seedlinsjs and the grass or woodland whence tlu 
mice come, they will be kept out, as they will not try to work 
through the solid snow. Seedlings that are badly girdled in 
winter should be cut off at the surface of the ground, to encour- 
age snrouts from the roots. To prevent the gnawing of larger 
trees, pnint the trunks with a cement or lime wash made rather 



10() ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

thick and containing Paris Green in the proportion of one table- 
spoonful of Paris Green to a pailful of the wash. If skim milk 
is used in mixing the wash, instead of water, the material sticks 
better. Trees that are gnawed badly may often be saved by coat- 
ing the injured surface with grafting wax. blue clay, or other 
similar material, soon after the damage is done, so as to prevent 
the seasoning of the wood, and thus give it a chance to heal 
over. Where the injury is close to the ground it should be cov- 
ered with earth. 

The Pocket Gopher. Trees are sometimes injured by 
pocket gophers eating the roots. Trapping or poisoning may be 
resorted to, or bisulphide of carbon may be used to sufifocate 
them in their burrows. 

Birds. Most of our birds are helpful in various ways, such 
as distributing seeds and in destroying injurious insects, and 
such small injurious animals as mice and gophers. They also 
add to the beauty of our woods and fields, and to our pleasure 
and recreation. But some kinds are provokingly injurious by 
eating the seeds we wish to gather, or by digging up newly-sown 
seeds. Where they are troublesome on seed beds, they may be 
kept away by covering the bed with wire netting, which will also 
serve to keep away other animals. If only birds are trouble- 
some, mosquito netting may be used, or the seeds may be given 
a light coating of red lead and dried in land plaster or flour 
before sowing. 

The sap-sucker does considerable injury to some trees by 
making holes in the bark for the purpose of securing insects 
which go there to feed on the sap. They are sometimes so very 
injurious that it is necessary to destroy them. The Apple, Box- 
elder, Maple, and most other trees, are subject to their injuries. 

Cattle. The pasturing of cows, horses, sheep and other ani- 
mals in the woodlands is generally a poor practice, as these ani- 
mals browse ofif many of the young seedlings, especially those of 
deciduous trees, such as the Oak, Basswood, Cherry and 
others, though they seldom eat coniferous trees. They also com- 
pact the ground, and destroy many small seedlings by their con- 
tinued tramping, especially when present in large numbers. This 
is especially true of sheep on the Western forest reserves. Deer, 
moose, elk and other similar animals are likewise injurious in 



INJURIES TO TRF.KS. 



loT 



forests, and when abundant may do much damage, tliough on 
account of their comparatively small number they do but slight 
injury. 

Severe Winters. These may injure many kinds of young 
seedlings, which when two or three years old will be perfectly 
hardy. Seedlings of such kinds sliouid be dug at the end of the 
first season's growth, and be heeled in over winter, or protected 
by a mulch or earth covering in winter. 

Alternate Freezing and Thawing. Seedlings are often 
thrown out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing, and 




Figure 24. Heaving out by Frost, (a) Tree in 
natural position, (b) Drawn up by alternate freezing 
and thawing. 

in this way have their roots broken. This is most likely to hap- 
pen where the ground is bare; if covered with leaves or grass, 
or shaded in other ways, this seldom happens. The best pre- 
ventive is to mulch the surface soil with leaves or other simi- 
lar material, but as mice generally like to live in such places poi- 
son should be used. It should be placed under the mulch, in tin 



108 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

cans laid on their sides, so they may be readily found in spring 
and will not be liable to poison the birds. When seedlings are 
thrown out of the ground by frost they should be pushed back 
and have the earth pressed against them as soon as the ground 
is thawed in the spring. 

I^ate Spring Frosts are common in the low lands of this 
section. They injure the trees by killing the new spring growth 
after it has started several inches. A large number of trees are 
seriously injured in this way. and are classed as frost tender 
trees, and those that are not liable to this injury a"e termed 
frost hardy trees, .^mong conifers the spruces and balsams 
arc much injured by late spring frosts, while our ])ines and the 
Tamarack, Red Cedar and Arborvit:e are seldom if ever injured 
in this way. Deciduous trees recover from such injuries more 
quickly than evergreens. Among the deciduous trees most lia- 
ble to injury from this cause are the Ash, Mulberry, Oak, Maple, 
Basswood, Black Walnut, Butternut and Boxelder, though they 
do not all suffer in the same degree. Among those that are not 
sensitive to late frosts are the Elm, Willow. Poplar, Birch, Hack- 
berry. Wild Black Cherry and Mountain .^sh. 

On accor.nt of this liability to inju'y from late frosts, it is 
customary to study the probability of damage from this cause in 
given locations, and to plant accordingly It will often be found 
that in certain low spots there is greater liability to late frosts, 
while there is very little injury from this cause on the higher 
lands. It is customary among European foresters to protect 
young seedlings of some kinds, particularly Beech, from late 
frosts until they get up off the ground. For this purpose Birch 
twenty or more feet high are encouraged at intervals of thirty or 
forty feet, and the frost tender plants, such as Beech and Spruce, 
are set out between. The result of this arrangement is that the 
Birch, which is frost hardy, quite successfully protects the frost 
tender trees below it. .\fter the frost tender trees are well off 
the ground, as ten or fifteen feet high, there is comparatively lit- 
tle danger from this source of injury, and the Birch is removed. 

Sleet Storms occasionally do much damage by breaking the 
limbs. Little can be done to relieve the trees, but preventive 
measures may be taken. If no large crotches are allowed to 
form in trees, and growth kept as near as possible to one cen- 
tral shaft, or the longer branches shortened so as they will not 



INJURIES TO TREES. 



109 



exert luo great a leverage, the losses may be reduced to a niini- 
nuim. Trees having brittle wood or weak crotches, as the Soft 
l\Iai)le, are nnich more liable to this injurj' than those with 
tough wood, as the willows, oaks and elms, and need more 
pruning on this account. Evergreens are likely to be broken 




Figure 25. Trees heavily loaded with ice after a sleet storm. 



by heavy snows that freeze on the leaves. This may be pre- 
vented on lawn and shade trees by shaking the snow off from 
them before it freezes. 

Frost Cracks are a rather infrequent injury caused by the 
c. asking of trees from center to outside, due to uneven contrac- 
tion in very cold weather. It is generally accompanied by a 
loud report. Such cracks are often eight or ten feet long, and 
occasionally longer. They generally close up again when the 
wood thaws out, and during the following summer grow over. 



110 



ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 



only to burst open again the next winter. This alternate burst- 
ing open and growing over may continue for many years, until 
very conspicuous and peculiar wounds are formed. In such 
cracks insects and rot-producing fungi find favorable lodging 
places, and as a result trees are seriously injured, and are liable 
to decay in the trunk. There are no practical remedies for such 
injuries. 

Wind. Injuries from wind are common where thinning is 
done to a great extent at one time about shallow rooted trees, 
such as Spruce growing on moist soil. 
These injuries can be avoided only by 
thinning gradually. In many such 
cases, on timber lands, thinning is im- 
practicable, and it is then best to cut all 
the merchantable timber, for if left it is 
sure to be blown down. 

On our prairies, where the soil is 
light and easily moved by the wind, it 
is not uncommon to have young seed- 
ling trees seriously injured by the blow- 
ing away of the soil around the roots, 
which often leaves them uncovered for 
three or more inches. This injury 
usually takes place in the spring,, and 
may be almost entirely prevented by 
seeding the land to oats about the mid- 
dle of July, at the time of the last 
cultivation. Sown at this season the 
oats form a good sod that serves to 
hold the soil in place until spring, 
when it is easily broken up by cultiva- 
tion, but even then the roots prevent 
the blowing away of the soil. Occa- 
sional strips of grass are also a pre- 
ventive of this injury, or mulching may 
be resorted to. 

Snow Crust. The settling of a 

snow crust that has formed on the top 

of deep snow drifts may cause injury to 

young trees by stripping ofif their 

CraS"in1ug?'VapTe. branches and breaking the stems. It 




INJURIES TO TREES. 



Ill 



may be prevented by breaking up the crust or by thinly scat- 
tering over the snow some sand, ashes or other material that 
will absorb the sun's heat and cause the crust to melt before the 
snow underneath melts. This injury seldom occurs except 
under drifts, and a little good judgment in selecting the loca- 
tion and arranging the windbreak so as to prevent drifts may 
obviate this source of injury. 

Drouth. Injuries from drouth may be prevented to a great 
extent by constant cultivation, but where this cannot be done 
mulching is a good substitute. Attention to thinning at the 
proper time so as not to get the soil filled with roots will also 



bSi 1 


^ 


i 


mp 


IB 


Ib*^" 


'^""- 


■R^ 


e 


li 




L 


Bfi| 


nHj^i*^ 


m 


Wm. 




Figure pS. Section of Trunk of 
Sun-scalded Basswood. Showing 
dead bark and amount of wood de- 
cayed. The top and roots of the 
tree from which this section was 
cut were perfectly healthy at the 
time when the trunk broke off at 
the sun-scald. 



Figure 27. Trunk of 
Soft Maple badly sun- 
scalded. 



help to prevent injury from drouth. Willow windbreaks can be 
grown without any cultivation, after being once well established, 
in the driest portion of Minnesota, if they are kept mulched with 
straw or litter for six feet on each side. Mulching also prevents 
injury from severe freezing of the roots. 



112 ELEMENTARY EOREStRY. 

Sun-scald. Nearly all of our cultivated trees may be injured 
b}' sun-scald. This occurs, almost without exception, on the 
southwest side of unprotected trees of Hard and Soft Maple, 
Basswood, Boxeldcr, Black Walnut, etc. Oaks and all other 
trees are occasionally afTected. It never occurs when the trees 
are sufificiently close together to shade their trunks, and for this 
reason the growth of shrubs and low branching trees should be 
encouraged on the south and Avcst sides of groves where they 
do not crowd the principal kinds. Street trees liable to tlrs 
injury may be protected by burlap sacking, straw, or other simi- 
lar material. When injuries from sun-scald occur, the loose bark 
should be cut oft down to the live growth and the wood coated 
with paint, to prevent its seasoning, or the wound wrapped in 
cloth. Trees inclined to the noitheast are most liable to sun- 
scald, because the rays of the sun strike the trunk more nearly 
perpendicular. 

Broken Branches and Decay. Large wounds are some- 
linies formed by the breaking down of a branch, or by decay, 
which may have started in a wound made by pruning. In such 
cases the broken and decayed wood should be cleared away, and 
the exposed surfaces treated with a very heavy coat of white 
lead paint, grafting wax, or other material that will keep out 
water and disease. If the wound is very large, or forms* a hole 
in which water is likely to stand, it should be cleaned and painted 
as recommended, and then coveied with a sheet of zinc, care- 
fully tacked on, and the joints closed with grafting wax to keep 
out water. 

Fungus Diseases are quite common sources of injury to 
trees of all kinds, including those of our forests. They attack 
the foliage, trunk and roots. Occasionally very serious losses 
occur here from those that cause the trunks to rot. They are 
generally most numerous in sections where there is not much of 
a circulation of air. This subject is too large for a detailed 
account of any of them here, and only one is referred to, which, 
although not very common, is occasionally quite injurious. This 
is known as the toadstool root fungus, Agaricus mcllcus. This 
fungus lives upon the roots of pines, spruces, firs, etc., and occa- 
sionally kills them. At one stage of its growth it lives on the 
decaying wood of oaks and similar trees. 



INJURIES TO TREKS. 



113 



FOREST FIRES. 

Forest Fires arc the one great cause of injuries to forests 
in this section. All other causes of injury are very slight in 
comparison to it. and could this one cause be removed it is more 
than probable that the natural renewal of our timber lands would 
be sufificient to maintain the timber industries of Minnesota for 
very many years to come. 

Fires in this state have destroyed large areas of pine log tim- 
ber before it could be made accessible to market. It is uiuloubt- 




Figure 29. Agaricus mellcus, a fungu.s tliat is occasionally very injurious 
to trees by destroying their roots, (a ) A fruiting portion of the fungus 



cdly true that in this section of the country more pine timber has 
been destroyed by fire than the lumbermen have ever cut. 

On account of this great danger to pine timber, and on 
account of high taxes, the lumbermen have been discouraged 
from holding their pine lands for a second growth, but prefer to 
cut every tree that can be made into salable lumber and then 
abandon the land. But even under such conditions it occasion- 
ally happens that the land is not burned over, or only slightly 
burned, for a number of years, when it will generally produce a 



114 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

good second cutting. Some land in this state that was first cut 
in the early days of the logging industry, when it was customary 
to cut nothing but that which would make a ten-inch log, have 
been logged two or three times since, and with a good profit. 

Since fires render most of the cut-over lands in this state 
entirely non-productive, and since the annual increase on the 
trees that should grow on such land is at least 185 feet board 
measure per acre, it is plain that the loss to the people of the 
state on the 6,000,000 or more acres of cut-over lands is very 
large. 

Forest fires not only destroy a very great amount of prop- 
erty each year, but they occasionally cause great loss of life. In 
the Hinckley fire of 1894 (which was entirely the result of ignor- 
ance and neglect) there is known to have been 424 lives lost, 
besides a large amount of property, and occasionally in other 
years settlers have had to fiee for their lives, and leave their 
houses and crops to be burned. 

It is impossible for fires to run over any forest land without 
doing great injury. The amount of damage done by them is 
difficult to estimate, and varies much according to the time of 
year, the age and condition of the trees, the soil and the severity 
of the fire. 

Forest fires are sometimes grouped into the three following 
classes: (i) Underground Fires, that do not show much on 
the surface, but which destroy the roots of trees and greatly 
injure the soil. (2) Surface Fires, which burn the leaves and 
grass in the woods, and do much damage by destroying the for- 
est floor and killing the young seedlings. (3) Crown Fires, 
which run in the crowns of the trees, and when once started are 
almost irresistible. The latter is one of the worst forms, and is 
generally accompanied by surface, and often by underground, 
fires. 

The Killing- of Mature Trees ijy any of thes^ three kinds 
of fires entails but a slight loss comparatively to the timber, 
providing it is accessible to market, as the trees can be cut the 
following winter. But fires that kill the mature growth gener- 
ally do great damage by killing the young growth and destroy- 
ing the forest floor. Timber that is allowed to stand more than 
one or two years after being killed by fire generally suffers much 



FOREST FIRES. 11.' 

from insects and fungus diseases. This is most evident in the 
case of White Pine, Birch, Poplar and similar soft woods, but 
even hard woods are injured by insects if allowed to stand long 
after being killed. 

The Killing- of Half-Grown Trees by forest fires causes 
a loss that amounts not only to the value of the timber trees but 
to the value of the seeding and shading trees and the forest 
floor. The value of the trees alone in this case is not a fair 
standard by which to measure the loss, since at this stage of 
their growth they are making their most rapid increase, and 
their value should be computed as the amount upon which the 
increase is paying a good interest. For instance, the Division 
of Forestry of the Minnesota Experiment Station found land 
that was well stocked with young White Pine (six inches in 
diameter and fifty feet high) that could be bought for about one 
dollar per acre, and yet the annual increase on the trees would 
pay five per cent on a valuation of $100,000 for the next twenty 
years. The reason why such a state of aftairs exists is that tliere 
is such great danger from fire that the investment fails to com- 
mand the money of careful investors. 

The Destruction of the Forest Floor by fire greatly les- 
sens the probability of an immediate renewal of valuable tree 
growth upon the land, and therefore is one of the greatest 
injuries to forests. The value of the forest floor can hardly be 
estimated, but the expense that would be necessary after a fire 
to produce conditions as favorable to the seeding of our timber 
lands as those found in unburned forests would probably be not 
less than twenty-five dollars per acre. 

I/ight Fires, which repeatedly run over the ground, and 
which by the casual observer are thought to be of no impor- 
tance, often destroy the seeds in the surface soil and the young 
tree seedlings, besides injuring the forest floor, and unless such 
fires are prevented it is impossible to secure a good growth of 
timber on any land. The fires that burn over the land shortly 
after it has been logged, and which feed on the tops and other 
waste parts of the trees, generally destroy a large number of 
young seedling trees, perhaps all of them, so that in order to 
secure a new growth seeds must be brought from a distance. 
Owing to the great heat developed by such fires in dry weather. 



IIG 



ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 



they are unusually destruetive, and leave very little humus in the 
top soil. For this reason land that has been burned over in this 
way is a long time in recovering from its injuries. Besides the 
injuries already cited, all forest fires kill or drive out much of 
the game in our forests. 

Spring Fires are very injurious to trees, and especially ten- 
der seedlings, for trees in the spring of the year are full of sap, 
and can endure but little heat. 

Summer and Autumn Fires generally run deep into the 
ground, and if the soil is very dry and of a peaty nature burn ofT 




Figure 30. A Fire Fall. Roots burned off and trees blown down in 
great confusion. 

the roots of the trees. The result of this is that the trees are 
blown down in great confusion, and form what are known as 
"fire falls." Where a thick growth falls it forms an almost 
impassable barrier, which remains in this state until decay and 
repeated fires, extending over a lohg series of years, finally 
destroy the trees, and perhaps get the land into condition for a 
new growth. 



FORT'ST FIRES. 117 

Causes of Forest Fires. The only natural causes of forest 
fires arc friction and lightning, both of which occasionally start 
fires in dead trees, but as such fir^s are most likely to be set 
during a rain they seldom do much damage. Practically all the 
injurious forest fires that have devastated the forested part of 
this section have resulted indirectly either from a lack of appre- 
ciation of the damage done by them or from carelessness and 
ignorance. In the disastrous Hinckley fire of 1894 the damage 
was done by a large fire formed by the combination of several 
small fires that were allowed to smoulder in the swamps near 
Hinckley for a week or more, which when fanned by a dry hot 
wind attained an irresistible energy. If we had had a fire law 
that could have been properly enforced at that time, or if the 
people near Hinckley had been aware of their danger, that great 
fire, with its attendant great loss of life and property, need not 
have occurred. 

Fires Often Fscape from Settlers when they are clearing 
land, and are sometimes started by them to make pasture for 
their stock. The careless use of fire by the hunters, prospectors 
and others who camp in the forest and leave their camp fires 
unextinguished is another common cause of fires. Railroads set 
many fires, and should be required to more rigidly conform to 
the law requiring them to use spark arresters and to keep their 
right of way free from combustible material. 

The moral effect of a properly enforced forest fire law is not 
only very great in restraining the careless, but especially in edu- 
cating law-abiding citizens in the idea that there is value in 
young seedlings and timber trees. 

The Prevention of Forest Fires will be most certainly 
accomplished by educating our people to an appreciation of the 
amount of damage done by them. In some counties in this state 
it is impossible to enforce the law against setting forest fires, 
owing to the belief that fires are a good thing for their sections 
in destroying tree growth and bringing the land into condition 
to be easily taken up by settlers. There is some truth in this 
claim, but, since the fires destroy all increase on the land they 
sweep over, a large amount of it is thereby rendered entirely 
unproductive long before settlers are ready for it. while in the 
meantime it might be producing a crop of valuable timber. 



Its ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Tlicn again, it is the greatest injustice to allow one person to 
burn the property of another, which right is practically claimed 
by those who advocate the unrestricted use of fire. 

With a Desire in the Minds of People to keep out 
forest fires, there are many precautions that could be taken that 
would lessen the chances of their starting, and when started 
would aid in controlling them. The first thing is a good fire 
law, such as now stands in Minnesota, which recognizes the fact 
that the state and county should protect forest property from 
tire for the same reason that a town or city protects the property 
of its citizens from fire. This law puts one-third the expense 
of enforcing it on the state and the other two-thirds on the 
county. The chief reasons why a part of this burden should be 
borne by the state and not by the counties alone are that fires 
spread from one county to another, and the state must be organ- 
ized to extinguish such fires when they have once started, since 
it is the only competent authority that can do this. Then again, 
the State of Minnesota owns, or will own, when surveys have 
been completed, about 3,000,000 acres of land scattered through 
the forested area, besides possibly nearly as great an area that 
has been bid in by the state for delinquent taxes. A large part 
of the land the state owns has a valuable growth of trees on it. 
much of which is liable to injury or destruction by fire at any 
time, and the state can well afford to provide protection for it. 

Firebreaks, in the shape of clean earth roads, plowed strips, 
etc., are effective against ordinary forest fires. Very often by 
clearing up and widening the course of a brook a very efficient 
firebreak may be made which will supplement other firebreaks. 
It is stated on good authority that fairly satisfactory and very 
cheap firebrealvs may be made in rough stump land by fencing 
off a strip about three rods wide and pasturing it with sheep 
which will kill out all the brush in the course of a year or two. 
The sheep do this most effectually if the land is rather over 
stocked, and they receive a little grain to make up for their lack 
of pasturage. Figure 31 shows a firebreak or lane on Le 
Grande Dune in France. 

The Burning of Trash left on the ground at the time of 
logging is recommended by some of our best woodmen as a 
means of doing away with one of the sources of our worst forest 
fires. This trash can be burned early in the spring, or at other 



FOREST FIRHS. 



119 




l-iguic 31. 1-irebreak on a great sand dune in France, wiucli lias been 
successfully covered with Pine. 



120 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

times when the ground is wet and fire is not likely to get beyond 
control. On the other hand, -t is well known that there are 
many seedlings on such land that would be seriously injured or 
destroyed by such treatment. It is also known that under the 
trash left after logging are generally found about the best condi- 
tions for pine seeds to start and for the seedlings to grow, so 
that some of our best authorities condemn the practice. It 
would seem, however, that on account of the great liability of 
fires starting in such trash, prudence would generally advocate 
the burning of it while it could be controlled, but this should be 
done so as to cause as little injury as possible to new growth, 
and especial care should be taken to save seeding trees. The 
cost of such work has been urged against it. but this has often 
been overestimated, and it seems evident that it is entirely prac- 
ticable. 

The Methods of Fighting Surface Fires are various, and 
their use depends on the conditions under which the work must 
. be done. Where possible the plowing of a firebreak a rod or 
more wide is most satisfactory, but th's is seldom practicable 
within our wooded areas. Back Firing is generally the most 
successful method of making a firebreak. When this is to be 
practiced, a convenient place to fight fire should be chosen, at 
some distance ahead of the main fire, where the back fire should 
be started, after every precaution has been taken to prevent its 
getting beyond control. Where a supply of water can be 
obtained, surface fires can be most easily, put out by applying it 
through a common sprinkling pot, with a good rose sprinkler 
on it. This is especially eft'ective where fire is running through 
grass, and those who have never tried it will generally be sur- 
prised at the effectiveness of this method. Where the fire is 
burning several inches of leaves a small strip should be cleaned 
of them before applying the water. Gunny sacks or similar 
material, wet in water, make very efifective weapons with which 
to fight fire. Where the soil is sandy, sand is often the best 
material obtainable for putting out fires. 

Underground Fires, such as occur in bogs and other soils 
containing a large amount of organic matter, when once started, 
are often very hard to subdue, owing to their great depth, and, 
where not looked after, sometimes burn for a year or more 
unless we have very heavy rains. They often cause great injury 



NOTAItM". l<ORF.ST FIRES. 121 

by burning out all organic matter from the soil and leaving it 
in poor shape for crops, though a rather severe but not excessive 
firing of bogs may do much to clear the land of roots and put 
it in shape for a good hay meadow. Then, too, they often so 
reduce the level of the land by burning out the organic matter 
as to make it wet and of no value for agricultural crops. If 
such fires are attacked soon after they secure a foothold in the 
soil they arc seldom very difificult to put out. Where not deep 
in the ground or of very great extent the burning peat may be 
,dug out and watered, but this is often impracticable on account 
of the heat. In this latter case a ditch should be dug around the 
fire as close to it as practicable and of sufficient depth to reach 
standing water or the subsoil. The fire should then be carefully 
watched to see that it docs not get beyond the ditch. It is sel- 
dom that sufficient water can be put on a large bog fire to put 
it out. on account of the great amount of water that dry peat 
will absorb and the protective covering of ashes and ])cat usually 
found over a bog fire. 

NOTABLE FOREST FIRES. 

Among the worst forest fires which have occurred on this 
continent are the following: 

Miramichi Fire of 1825. This occurred near Newcastle, 
on the Miramichi river, in New Brunswick. In nine hours it 
had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long and twenty-five 
miles wide, and almost every living thing was killed on that 
amount of territory; even the fish were destroyed in the smaller 
lakes and streams. It is estimated that the loss from this fire, 
not including the value of the timber burned, was $300,000. One 
hundred and sixty persons lost their lives, and nearly 1,000 head 
of stock were killed. 

The Peshtigo Fire occurred in October, 1871. This burned 
an area of over 2,000 square miles in Wisconsin. Between 1,100 
and 1.500 persons lost their lives, and property to the amount of 
many millions of dollars was destroyed. 

Very serious fires have occurred in Michigan from time to 
time, in one of which, in about 1871, a strip of territory forty 
miles wide and 180 miles long, extending across the central part 
of the state from Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, was devastated. 



122 F.LEMKNTARY FORESTRY. 

More than ten million dollars worth of timber was burned, and 
several hundred persons perished. 

The Hinckley Fire occurred Sept. i, 1894, and was the 
most destructive fire of recent years. Hinckley, Minnesota, and 
several other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were lost. 
and more than 2,000 persons were left destitute. It is esti- 
mated that the loss in property amounted to about $25,000,000. 
The Iocs of life from this fire would have been much more than 
stated had it not been for the fact that the railroad companies 
ran special trains to carry the settlers away from the flames. 
This fire was wholly unnecessary, and could easily have been 
put out in its earlier stages. For two weeks previous to the 
breaking out of this fire into an uncontrollable mass of flame 
small fires had been raging in swamps about Hinckley, and filled 
the town with dense smoke, and it was only when these became 
united under the direction of a hot south wind that it passed 
beyond control. Had the present forest fire law of Minnesota 
been in force at that time this fire would undoubtedly have been 
prevented. 

Forest and Pasture. When forests are used as pasture, 
the cattle will eat the foliage of many species, provided it is 
within their reach. They also trample on the young seedlings, 
and destroy them in this way. As a result, all good foresters are 
opposed to the pasturing of cattle in woodlands. Especially is 
this the case where the trees are of the broad-leaved species, 
which are preferred by cattle. However, in the case of well 
established forests, in which there is no special desire for a 
renewal of growth from seed, no great injury can come from 
moderate pasturing. Cattle are rigidly excluded from most 
European forests, but in some of the more remote districts, 
where timber is still quite cheap, it is customary to pasture for- 
ests. Of course, where the range is large and not fully stocked, 
the injury is much less than where the .range is crowded. This 
combination of forest and. pasture has led to the use of several 
methods of protecting young seedlings against cattle, among the 
first of which might be mentioned the planting of seedling 
conifers between the buttresses of old stumps, where it would be 
very unlikely that the cattle would step on them. It is also 
practiced to protect the seedlings by driving two strong stakes 



For I- ST AND PASTURlv 



123 



in the Rround near them, and occasionally over a considerable 
acrcase the cattle and deer may be fenced ont until the trees arc 
so large that they will not injure them. Under some conditions 
the eating off of the leaves from the sides of the trunk of sap- 
lings would prove a desirable pruning. It is very certain that 
while forests and pastures cannot often be very well combined 
together, yet it is possible to combine them under some condi- 
tions. It is quite common to see the new growth of spruce 
and fir in European forests protected from the browsing of deer 
by covering the tips of the young shoots with a little coal tar 




Figure 32. Sand dune near Seven Mile Beach, New Jersey. 



or common cotton batting. The cotton batting seems to be 
very disagreeable to the deer, and to afford about as good pro- 
tection as the coal tar. It is. however, rather more diflficult to 
put on. 

Sand Dunes. In a few places in this state, and in various 
parts of this country, notably along portions of the seashore and 
along the shores of the Great Lakes, there are quite considera- 
ble sand dunes. By this is meant the drifting sands which arc 
easily blown about after the vegetation which has held them in 



124 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

place has been broken. Along the shore of New Jersey, at 
Seven Mile Beach, there is a dune which is traveling inward at 
the rate of perhaps fifteen feet per year, and is destroying quite 
a growth of forest trees. This dune is thirty or forty feet high, 
— as high as the trees, — and as the prevailing strong winds are 
from the east, its tendency is always inland. There are other 
notable sand dunes at Provincetown, on Cape Cod, Mass., which 
have been fixed in place by judicious planting. 

In some parts of Europe, notably in Gascony, France, dunes 
have destroyed an immense amount of territory in former ages. 
Whole villages have at times been gradually wiped out by the 
encroaching dunes. The sand is so fine and so easily moved 
by the wind that there is very little chance for any vegetation to 
grow on it, and it is only in recent times that methods have 
been successfully adopted to hold it in place. 

The Most Improved Way of Checking Sand Dunes 
is to first make a windbreak of boards or poles which may be 
pulled up as the sand drifts up onto them. These are used tem- 
porarily to afford an opportunity of getting vegetable growth 
started. As a rule the vegetable growth which has been most 
successfully used for fixing sand dunes is that of plants that 
grow naturally in such places. Such species are generally those 
that throw out long creeping stems at or just below the surface 
of the ground, and also such as are capable of healthy growth 
even when half buried by encroaching sand. We have a number 
of native species that are adapted to this purpose, among which 
are the Sand Reed, the Sand Cherry, several varieties of Wil- 
lows, and Quack Grass. Where these once gain a foothold upon 
a sand dune they hold it better than would be possible by arti- 
ficial means. In protecting such land it is generally best to dig 
up clumps of these grasses, or use long willow cuttings, and set 
them in place in a wet time. 

In some sections along the Great Lakes the sand is now held 
in place by the natural covering of weeds and shrubs, but should 
this be removed and the land broken up there would be much 
trouble in getting it again fixed in place. Such is the case along 
the southern shore of Lake Michigan. 



CHAPTER IX. 

RATE OF INCREASE IN TIMBER. 

The Rate of Increase on Timber Trees varies accord- 
ing to the kind and age of the trees and llic conditions under 
which they are growing. J^Iost of the pine trees cut for log tim- 
ber in this state have been upwards of lOO years old, and some of 
the White and Norway Pine that has been cut was over 300 
years old. Perhaps the largest White Pine ever cut in this state 
was scaled by H. B. Ayres. The tree was 253 years old, meas- 
ured forty-eight inches in diameter on the stump, and yielded 
4,050 feet board measure of log timber. The most rapidly grown 
trees recorded in this state were: Norway Pine 100 years old, 
thirty inches on the stump, yielding 1,050 feet board measure; 
White Pine, 106 years old, twenty-seven inches on the stump, 
yielding 1,050 feet board measure, and White Pine 108 years old, 
thirty-two inches on the stump, yielding 1,450 board measure. 
The largest recorded acre yield of White Pine in Minnesota was 
near Carlton. The full yield of this acre was 111,050 feet board 
measure, and after deducting for rot and crooks 94,264 feet of 
sound timber remained. The average yield of White Pine is 
much below this, and large areas have been cut that did not yield 
over 5.000 feet board measure per acre. 

Marketable White and Norway Pine may be grown in 
about tliirty years under the best conditions in this section, and 
at this age will probably be about eight inches in diameter and 
forty feet high. But such trees are then growing very fast, and 
as the approximate increase in volume of the tree is as the square 
of the proportionate increase in diameter and the waste in work- 
ing greatly decreases with the size of the trees, the cutting of 
them at such an early age would be at a loss of future profits. 
Such trees have very little, if any, heart wood, and yet this kind 
of timber is being grown and marketed in many of the Eastern 
States. In fact, there is very little heart to any of the pine now 
cut in the New England States, as it is practically all young 



12G ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

second growth, ana is generally marketed about as soon as it 
attains sufficient size to be salable, without regard to the fact that 
it is then making its most rapid growth. 

From careful observation, the Experiment Station of the 
University of Minnesota estimates that on land adapted to the 
White Pine, with a thick growth of this kind of trees eight inches 
in diameter, the annual increase should be about fifty cubic feet, 
or 500 feet board measure, per acre. In some cases this rate of 
increase has been more than doubled, but under ordinary good 
conditions not over one-third as much increase need be ex- 
pected. 

The Thickness of the Annual Rings on trees varies with 
the conditions under which the trees make their growth, and is 
therefore a good index to these conditions. Trees that are 
crowded so that they make a very rapid upward growth form 
very thin rings, and when this upward growth ceases owing to 
the removal or suppression of surrounding trees much thicker 
rings are formed. Trees that are grown in the open produce 
throughout their lives thick annual rings, which vary in thick- 
ness according to varying climatic conditions. Those of the 
White Pine vary in thickness from one-sixteenth of an inch or 
less in trees that are severely crowded to one-third of an inch 
in open-grown trees in good soil. Willows sometimes have 
annual rings three-fourths of an inch wide. 

The I/ife History of a Mature Tree in virgin forest 
may often be determined by a study of the annual rings, in con- 
nection with the environment of the tree. The Division of For- 
estry of the Minnesota Experiment Station has made several 
studies of this kind, among which are the following: 

Figure 33 shows a section of a White Pine which made its 
growth under varying conditions. This tree started into growth 
under Birch and Aspen, and when from twenty to twenty-five 
years old was nearly suppressed by them. Overcoming them 
when thirty years old it pushed upward rapidly until about its 
fiftieth year. It was then set free by fire, which checked its 
upward growth for about twenty-five years, when, owing to the 
crowding of surrounding trees, it began to again increase rap- 
idly in height. When eighty-four years old fire killed the sur- 
rounding trees and set this one entirely free, in which condition 



LIFE Hk^TORV OF A TREE. I^T 

it reniaiiicd until it was cut eighteen years later. When cut it 
measured fifty-five feet high, thirteen inches through at the base 
and contained 29.95 cubic feet of timber. During the last ten 
years it had made an average annual increase of 1.5 cubic feet. 

This study brought out the following facts: (i) While 
rapid upward growth is being made the lateral accretions arc 
slight. (2) Large accretions accompany full leafage. (3) 




Figure 33. White Pine crowded and then open grown. 



After the surrounding growth is killed, the tree begins to 
strengthen the portion which receives the greatest strain by wind. 
that is, the lower part of the trunk. (4) In approaching the 
top of the tree the accretions are found to diminish as each live 
branch is passed. 

Figure 34 shows a section of a White Pine that was entirely 
open grown. This tree was cut when fifty-six years old, and 
measured eighteen inches in diameter on the stump, eight inches 
at twenty-five feet above the stump and forty-eight feet in height. 
The volume of the stem when cut was 28.85 cubic feet; the 



1-28 



ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 



accretion during the last ten years was 12.52 feet, which is 
equivalent to mean annual increment of 1.25 feet. 

As the live branches of this tree occupied the whole trunk, 
the timber was very knotty. A proper crowding would have 
kept it from forming large branches on the lower trunk, stimu- 
lated its upward growth, and prevented so large an increment 
during the early life of the tree. But if, as with the former tree, 




Figure 34. Cross section of Wiiite Pine open grown. 



it had been first crowded and then set free, the best timber in the 
least time would have been secured. 

The Profit from an Investment in I^and that is stocked 
willi only very small coniferous seedlings is altogether too small 
and too remote to prove an attraction to investors at present, 
even were the danger from fire entirely eliminated. But there 
is considerable land that is now stocked with a good growth of 
young pine of fair size that could be bought and managed at a 
igood profit if the danger from fire could be greatly reduced. 
This land in many cases would not have to be held more than 
ten or fifteen years to secure a good profit on the investment, 



PROFITS IN FORESTRY. 



129 



after which tlic profit might be made nearly continuous. The 
rapid growing deciduous trees, such as the Poplar, Willow. 
White and Yellow Birch, Soft Maple, Ash, Red and White Elm, 
Hackberry, Basswood, Locust, Black Walnut and Tamarack, 
may sometimes be planted and grown at a profit on waste land 




Figure 35. Crowded and open grown Norway Pine. Crowded trees 
form the most good timber in the shortest time. Open grown trees have 
many side branches, and consequently form poor timber. 



that is adapted to them, and should there be a stock of young 
trees of these kinds already on the land it can perhaps be soon 
made to yield a revenue in the shape of posts and fuel, and later 
of timber. Even the slower growing deciduous trees, such as 
the Red, White and Bur Oak, Hard Maple and Rock Elm, 



130 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

increase very rapidly in good soil, and could often be made to 
yield a good profit if properly managed. However, most of the 
hard-wood lands of this section are of such good quality that 
they seem destined to be generally cleared for agriculture instead 
of being kept for timber. 

Willow for Fuel. From a number of careful estimates it 
seems quite probable that good soil planted in White Willow 
will produce at the rate of from four to six cords of firewood per 
acre per year. If, then, ten acres were taken for this purpose, 
and one acre cut over clean each year, such amount of land 
would yield about fifty cords of fuel per annum, worth probably 
from two dollars to three dollars per cord in our prairie sections. 

In starting such a woodlot it would be desirable to set the 
cuttings two feet apart in rows eight feet apart, since at this 
distance, if cultivated, they will soon cover the land, and until 
the land is fully shaded cultivation seems to be necessary in 
order to keep down the weeds and to protect from drouth. 
After the land is well shaded no further cultivation will be 
necessary. 

At the end of five or six years some thinning should be done 
on all the land, and in this thinning probably at least half the 
trees should be removed. The remainder will soon fill up the 
vacancies, and in the course of three or four years more it should 
be again thinned out, and this should be repeated as often as 
they crowd one another until the trees on the land remain about 
twelve feet apart each way, after which the land should be treated 
as coppice, and since this tree renews itself very quickly and 
vigorously from sprouts, and continues to do so for a long 
period of years, it is probable that such a plantation will last 
indefinitely. 

Willow wood makes good summer fuel, and as a fence post, 
when the bark is removed and the wood well cured, it is quite 
satisfactory, and will last in the soil about seven years. It is 
also good for poles when peeled and dried. 

The Common Cottonwood on very rich soil will probably 
yield from five to seven cords of firewood per acre per year. 



DIAMETER GROWTH. 131 



DIAMETER GROWTH OF SOME MINNESOTA TREES. 

Cottonwood I inch in 1.4 years 

Norway Spruce i inch in 2.5 years 

Silver Maple i inch in 2.7 vears 

White Willow i inch in 2.8 years 

Basswood i inch in 4.5 years 

Sugar Maple i inch in 6.6 years 

White Elm i inch in 6.8 years 

Bur Oak i inch in 8.5 years 

The height growth of Silver Maple and White Willow is 
about two feet per year, Norway Spruce one foot per year. Bur 
Oak averaging thirty feet in height makes an average growth of 
about .55 feet per year, while the rate of height growth of the 
first twenty feet of marketable cordwood is about one foot in 1.5 
years. The height growth of Cottonwood varies from two to 
eight feet per year. A fifteen-year-old Cottonwood will often 
grow in height three feet per year. Black Spruce has shown a 
diameter growth of one inch in 14.7 years, and a height growth 
of one foot in 2.3 years. 



CHAPTER X. 

FOREST MENSURATION. 
MEASUREMENT OF SINGLE TREES. 

Trees which are to be Cut May be Considered in Two 
Classes, in the first of which fall all those which contain tim- 
ber material, and in the second those which are too small to be 
of value for timber. The material of the first class is in the 
main part available for timber, and in part for firewood, while 
the stump, smaller limbs and leaves are waste; the material of 
the second class may be tised in part for firewood, fence posts, 
etc. For timber purposes the cubic contents of the wood only 
is considered, while for firewood the bark is included in the cal- 
culation, so that we may measure part of the tree without bark 
and part with bark on. For timber usually only the main por- 
tion of the trunk is considered, especially in coniferous woods, 
but for firewood all limbs that will make a stick of cordwood 
must be included. In this discussion we will consider only the 
trunks of trees, as the volume of the limbs must be determined 
separately, but in the same way. 

The Volume of a Standing Tree can be gotten at only 
roughly, as there is no geometric ligure which exactly represents 
the shape of the trunk, the latter varying much under different 
conditions of growth. The volume of a paraboloid, the 
geometric figure which approaches nearest to the form of a 
tree, is equal to the product of the basal cross-sectional area by 
one-half the height. The basal area of a tree is taken at breast 
height, to avoid the excessive swelling near the ground. Breast 
height is usually considered as four feet three inches above the 
ground, at which point the diameter is measured by a pair of 
calipers in inches, and the area in square feet of the correspond- 
ing circle is found in a prepared table of such areas. The height 
of the tree may be determined by triangulation, in which various 
instruments are used, as the transit, the altimeter, or a mirror 



VOLUMK OK STANDING TREE. 



133 



hypsometer. A simple geometrical method is illustrated in the 
figure. A measuring rod is set up at a convenient distance from 
the tree AB, the eye of the observer is at S, and the lines of 
sight to the top and bottom of the tree intersect the rod at a 
and h. Then, by measuring the distances from the observer to 
the rod and to the tree the height is given by the formula 
ab X SC 

Now, considering the tree as a paraboloid, its basal area 
times one-half the height will give approximately the volume. 



S ,s. 



p. 



"b- 



Vigure 36. Measuring the height of a tree by a simple geometrical 
method. 



For example: .A white jiine has a diameter at breast height of 
18.7 inches, and the height of the tree is eighty-four feet; what 
is the volume? By reference to the table of areas of circles the 
area corresponding to a diameter of 18.7 inches is found to be 
1.9072 square feet. Multiplying this by one-half the height, the 
approximate volume of the tree is found — 1.9072X42=80.1024 
cubic feet. 

The Voluine of a Standing Tree may be Obtained 
by Employing- a Form Factor which has been previously 

(leterniined lur that particular species by the felling and accu- 
rate measurement of a great many sample trees of approxi- 



Vdi ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 

mately the same dimensions and grown under the same condi- 
tions. The form factor is expressed as a decimal, and is the ratio 
of the mean vohime of the sample trees to the volume of a cylin- 
der with the same diameter as the diameter of the mean sample 
tree at breast height, and whose length is equal to the height of 
the tree. For example : A tamarack measures 6.9 inches in diam- 
eter, breast high, and the height of the tree is fifty-one teet. Its 
volume by accurate measurement of the felled tree is 7.21 cubic 
feet, and the volume of a cylinder with a diameter of 6.9 inches 
and a length of fifty-one feet is 13.24 cubic feet. The form 
factor, or factor of shape, is therefore 7.21^13.24=1.54, and if 
this tamarack represents the mean of a large number of trees 
of approximately the same dimensions, the factor may be applied 
to all of them, or to all trees of the same size and grown under 
the same conditions. In the same way factors are determined 




Figure 37. Determining the volume of a felled tree. 

for all sizes, and tabulated for future use. In application the 
volume of a tree 6.9 inches in diameter, breast high, and fifty- 
one feet high would be found thus: Volume of cylinder X form 
factor equals volume of tree, or I3.24X.54=7-2I. This method 
gives a much closer approximation than could be obtained by 
using a geometric figure supposed to represent the shape of the 
tree. 

The Volume of a Felled Tree may be determined more 
accurately. It is considered in sections, or log lengths, and the 
volume of each section is found by multiplying the middle cross- 
sectional area by the length. The degree of accuracy of this 
method depends on the length of the sections; the shorter they 
are the more accurate the result. The last section at the top, 
when small, may be treated as a cone whose volume is equal to 
the basal area times one-third its length; or when large and 
tapering off suddenly it may be considered as a paraboloid whose 
volume is equal to the basal area times one-half its length. The 



VOLUMK OF A FELLKD TREE. 13.") 

sum of the volumes of all the sections will be the volume of the 
tree trunk. 

For example: A tree is felled at two feet above ground, and 
calipered at the stump and every four feet along the trunk down 
to three inches in diameter, and also at two feet above the last 
measurement. The remaining distance to the top of the tree is 
twelve feet. (See Figure 37.) 

By reference to the table of areas of circles on page 136 the 
areas at each point calipered are found: 

Area at diameter of 9 inches 4418 

Area at diameter of 8 inches 3491 

Area at diameter of 7 inches 2673 

Area at diameter of 6 inches 1963 

Area at diameter of 5 inches 1364 

Area at diameter of 4 inches 0873 

Area at diameter of 3 inches 0491 

Sum of areas 1-5273 

It will be noticed that these areas are taken at the middle of 
a four-foot section, so multiplying the sum by four, the volume 
of the trunk, from the ground to a height of 28 feet, is found 
to be 6.1092 cubic feet. Treating the top length of twelve feet 
as a cone, its volume is one-third times the basal area into the 
height, — .0341X12-^3=:. 1364 cubic feet, — which added to the vol- 
ume of the lower portion gives total volume of the tree 6.2456 
cubic feet. 



13G 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



AREAS OF CIRCI^ES. 





^ 






n. 






41 












m a 










q£ 







S5 



<(« 



a '^ 



<ltfi 



1h 


fa 










4i tn 


V 


"flj tn 


a.S 




s^ 


rt o 


i( a 


a o 


22 




55 


22.8 


2.8352 


28.5 


22.9 


2.8602 


28.6 


23.0 


2.8852 


28.7 


23.1 


2.91U3 


28.8 


23.2 


2.9356 


28.9 


23.3 


2.9610 


29.0 


23.4 


2.9864 


29 1 


23.5 


3.0120 


29.2 


23. ti 


3.0377 


29.3 


23.7 


3.0636 


29.4 


23.8 


3.0894 


29.6 


23.9 


3.1154 


29.6 


24.0 


3.1416 


29.7 


24.1 


3.1679 


29.8 


24.2 


3.1942 


29.9 


24.3 


3.2207 


30.0 


24.4 


3.2471 


80.1 


24.5 


3.2748 


80.2 


24.6 


3.3006 


30.3 


24.7 


3.3275 


30.4 


24.8 


3.3545 


80.5 


24.9 


3.3816 


30.6 


25.0 


3.4088 


30.7 


25.1 


3.4361 


80.8 


25.2 


3.4636 


30 9 


25.8 


3 4911 


31 


25.4 


3.5188 


82 


25.5 


3.5465 


33 


25.6 


3.5744 


34 


25.7 


3.6024 


35 


25.8 


3.6305 


36 


25.9 


3.6587 


87 


26.0 


3.6870 


88 


26.1 


3.7154 


39 


26.2 


3.7439 


40 


26.3 


3.7725 


41 


26.4 


3.8018 


42 


26.5 


3.8301 


43 


26.6 


3.8591 


44 


26.7 


3.8882 


45 


26.8 


3.9174 


46 


26.9 


3.9467 


47 


27.0 


8.9761 


48 


27.1 


4.0056 


49 


27.2 


4.0353 


50 


27.3 


4.0650 


51 


27.4 


4.0948 


52 


27.5 


4.1248 


53 


27.6 


4.1548 


54 


27.7 


4.1850 


55 


27.8 


4.2152 


56 


27.9 


4.2456 


57 


28.0 


4.2761 


58 


28.1 


4.3067 


59 


28.2 


4.3374 


60 


28.3 


4.3681 




28.4 


4.3991 





0.0 
0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 

o.e 

0.7 
0.8 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 
1.8 
1.4 
1.5 
1.6 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 
2.0 
2.1 
2.2 
2'3 
2.4 
2.5 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.9 
3.0 
3.1 
8.2 
3.3 
3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.7 
3.8 
3.9 
4.0 
4.1 
4.2 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 
4.6 
4.7 
4.8 
4.9 
5.0 
5.1 
5.2 
5.3 
5.4 
5.5 
5.6 



0.0000 
0.0001 
0.0002 
0.0005 
0.0009 
0.0014 
0.0020 
0.0027 
0.0085 
0.0044 
0.0065 
0.0067 
0.0079 
0.0092 
0.0107 
0.0123 
0.0140 
0.0168 
0.0177 
0.0197 
0218 
0.0240 
0.0264 
0.0289 
0.0314 
0.0341 
0.0369 
0.0398 
0.0428 
0.0469 
0491 
0.0624 
00559 
00594 
0.0631 
0.0669 
0.0707 
0.0747 
0.0788 
0.0880 
0.0873 
0.0917 
0.0963 
0.1009 
0.1056 
0.1105 
0.1154 
0.1205 
0.1257 
0.1310 
0.1364 
0.1418 
0.1474 
0.1532 
0.1690 
0.1650 
0.1710 



6.7 
5.8 
5.9 
6.0 
6.1 
6.2 
6.3 
6.4 
6.5 
6.6 
6.7 
6.8 
6.9 
7.0 
7.1 
7.2 

7 3 
7.4 
7.6 
7.6 
7.7 
7.8 
7.9 
8.0 
8.1 
8.2 
8.3 
8.4 
8.5 
8.6 
8.7 
8.8 

8 9 
9.0 
9.1 
9.2 
9.3 
9.4 
9.5 
9.6 
9.7 
9.8 
9.9 

10.0 
10.1 
10.2 
10.3 
10.4 
10,5 
10.6 
10.7 
10.8 
10.9 
11.0 
11.1 
11.2 
11.3 



0.1772 
0.1835 
0.1899 
0.1968 
0.2029 
0.2096 
0.2164 
0.2284 
0.2304 
0.2376 
0.2448 
0.2522 
0.2597 
0.2673 
0.2750 
0.2828 
0.2907 
0.2987 
0.3068 
0.8151 
0.3234 
0.8819 
0.8404 
0.3491 
0..3579 
0.8668 
0.3768 
0.3849 
0..394] 
0.4034 
0.4129 
0.4224 
0.4321 
0.4418 
0.4517 
0.4617 
0.4718 
0.4820 
0.4923 
0.5027 
0.5132 
0.6238 
0.5345 
0.5454 
0.5564 
0.5675 
0.6787 
0.5900 
0.6014 
0.6129 
0.6245 
0.6362 
0.6481 
0.6600 
0.6721 
0.6842 
0.6965 



11.4 
11.5 
11.6 
11.7 
11.8 
11.9 
12.0 
12.1 
12 2 
12^3 
1-2.4 
12.5 
12.6 
12.7 
12.8 
12.9 
13.0 
13.1 
13.2 
13.8 
13.4 
13.5 
13.6 
13.7 
13.8 
13.9 
14.0 
14.1 
14.2 
14.3 
14.4 
14.6 
14. 6 
14.7 
14.8 
14. 9 
15.0 
15.1 
15.2 
15.3 
15.4 
16.6 
15.6 
15.7 
16.8 
15.9 
16.0 
16.1 
16.2 
16.8 
16.4 
16.6 
16.6 
16.7 
16.8 
16.9 
17.0 



0.7089 
0.7214 
0.7840 
0.7467 
0.7595 
0.7724 
0.7854 
0.7986 
0.8118 
0.8252 
0.8387 
0.8623 
0.8660 
0.8798 
0.8937 
0.9077 
0.9218 
0.9360 
0.9504 
0.9684 
0.9794 
0.9941 
1.0089 
1.0287 
1.0387 
1.0588 
1.0690 
1.0843 
1.0997 
1.1153 
1 . 1309 
1.1467 
1.1626 
1.1785 
1.1946 
1.2108 
1.2272 
1.2437 
1.2602 
1.2768 
1.2936 
1.3104 
1.3274 
1.3444 
1.3616 
1.3789 
1.3968 
1.4138 
1.4314 
1.4492 
1.4670 
1.4849 
1.5030 
1 5212 
1.5394 
1.5678 
1.5763 



17.1 


1.5949 


17.2 


1.6136 


17.3 


1.6824 


17.4 


1.6518 


17.5 


1.6703 


17.6 


1.6894 


17.7 


1.7087 


17.8 


1.7280 


17.9 


1.7475 


18.0 


1.7671 


18.1 


1.7868 


18.2 


1.8066 


18.8 


1.8265 


18.4 


1.8466 


18.5 


1.8666 


18.6 


1.8869 


18.7 


1.9072 


18.8 


1.9277 


18.9 


1.9482 


19.0 


1.9689 


19.1 


1.9897 


19.2 


2.0206 


19.3 


2.0316 


19.4 


2.0527 


19.6 


2.0739 


19.6 


2.0952 


19.7 


2.1167 


19.8 


2.1882 


19.9 


2.1699 


20.0 


2.1817 


20.1 


2.2036 


20.2 


2. 2256 


20.3 


2.2477 


20.4 


2.2699 


20.6 


2 2922 


20.6 


2.3146 


20.7 


2.3371 


20.8 


2.8597 


20.9 


2.8825 


21.0 


2.4063 


21.1 


2.4288 


21.2 


2.4514 


21.8 


2.4745 


21.4 


2.4978. 


21.6 


2.5212 


21.6 


2.5447 


21.7 


2.5684 


21.8 


2.5921 


21.9 


2.6159 


22.0 


2.6398 


22.1 


2.6638 


•)0 o 


2.6880 


22.3 


2.7122 


22.4 


2,7866 


22.4 


2.7611 


22.6 


2.7857 


22.7 


2.8104 



MHASURKMENT OF GROWING STOCK. loT 

MEASUREMENT OF GROWING STOCK. 

The Growing Stock of a Forest, or Volume of Stand- 
ing Timber, is equal to the sum of the volumes of all the 
trees. Where the tract is small caliper all the trees, or if the 
tract is large caliper all the trees on a small sample area selected 
as typical of the whole. If each species is in uniform stand, 
separation into species classes will be sufficient, but where much 
difference exists between individuals of the same species, due 
to conditions of growth, diameter and height classes in each 
species should be formed, and the volume of each class com- 
puted by itself. From the diameters obtained by calipering at 
breast height the average basal area is determined in each class, 
and trees of corresponding diameters in each class are felled and 
measured accurately. The volume of a sample tree, or the mean 
volume of several sample trees, times the number of trees, gives 
the volume of that class, and the sum of the volumes of the dif- 
ferent classes is the total volume of timber on the tract. The 
more sample trees that are measured the more accurate will be 
the results, as trees vary so much in shape that quite different 
volumes may be obtained for two trees of the same diameter and 
height. 

A Sample Acre of Jack Pine Shows the Following 
Stand : 

Diameter, Basal 

Breast Height. No. Trees. .Area. 

2 inches i .0218 

3 inches 6 - .2946 

4 inches 6 .5238 

5 inches 16 2. 1824 

6 inches ;ji;i 6.4779 

7 inches 40 10.6920 

8 inches 60 20.9460 

9 inches 56 24.7408 

10 inches 46 25.0884 

11 inches 29 29.1400 

12 inches 11 8.6394 

13 inches 9 8.2962 

14 inches 2 2.1380 

15 inches 2 2.4544 

317 141-6357 



138 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Putting all these trees in one class, and dividing the total 
basal area by the number of trees, the mean basal area is found 
to be .4468, which would correspond to a diameter, at breast 
height, of nine inches. Selecting a tree nine inches in diameter, 
it is felled and measured accurately, and the volume found to be 
11.63 cubic feet. This volume of the sample tree is multiplied 
by the number of trees, 317, for the total volume on the acre — 
3.686.71 cubic feet. Greater accuracy may be attained by taking 
a sample tree for each diameter size, and a forest may be meas- 
ured in miniature by felling and measuring a proportionate num- 
per of each diameter, say one per cent of each. 

The volume of a sample tree, or of sample trees, is often 
found by applying the factor of shape, which has been previously 
determined for that particular species and locality. 

The Conversion of Cubic Feet Total Volume of 
Standing Timber into Feet Board Measure may be done 
roughly by considering i,coo cubic feet as the equivalent of from 
4,000 to 7,000 feet board measure, according to the size of the 
trees, young growths giving much less than old growths. 

The Conversion of Cubic Feet Firewood into Cords 
is accomplished by the use of the factors which experience ha.s 
shown to be practically accurate. A cord of wood piled up occu- 
pies 128 cubic feet of space, but on account of the shape of the 
.•sticks much of this is air space, and the actual wood content 
much less than 128 cubic feet. In Germany a cord has been 
found to contain 83.2 cubic feet of wood. In Saxony Dr. 
Schenck says that eighty-six cubic feet make a cord of ordinary 
firewood, and that 25.73 cubic feet of branch stuff will pile up to 
a cord. At the Minnesota Experiment Station, by actual meas- 
urement of round, straight sticks, a cord has been found to con- 
tain as high as 102 cubic feet. This factor of 102 cubic feet may 
apply very well to straight, well-trimmed spruce, tamarack, efc, 
free from knots and limbs, but will be too high for oak and 
similar wood, which is inclined to be more crooked, and does not 
pile so closely. A cord of small oak averaging 3.4 inches in 
diameter and ranging from 1.5 to 7.5 inches, consisting of 274 
four-foot sticks, measured 69.67 cubic feet. Averaging these two 
extremes, 85.85 cubic feet is found in a cord of mixed wood, cor- 
responding very nearly to the figure given by Dr. Schenck. 



RATE OF GROWTH. 130 



RATE OF GROWTH. 

The Accretion of a Tree is the Increase in Wood 
Content as the Result of its Activity During the Grow- 
ing Periods. The rate of growth is indicated by the increase 
in diameter, in height, or in mass, and may be considered as 
annual or as periodic. The diameter accretion is equal to twice 
the thickness of the annual rings for the desired period, meas- 
ured on the average radius. The current annual increase in 
diameter is taken as the average of several years back, as five or 
ten years. It is determined by counting ofif the required number 
of rings from the bark in, and measuring their thickness. Twice 
that thickness divided by the number of years in the period will 
give tlic current annual d'amctcr increase. 

The Height Accretion is Determined by counting and 
measuring the annual cones which appear in a longitudinal sec- 
tion, or by measuring the length of log between two cross sec- 
tions which was grown in the time indicated by the difference 
in the number of annual rings at the two sections. 

For example: A log is fourteen feet long. The lower end 
shows 178 annual rings and the upper end 150 annual rings. 
The difference in the number of these rings is 28, or twenty- 
eight years were required to grow the fourteen feet in length 
between the two cuts. The number of annual rings at any cross 
section indicates the lifetime of that portion of the tree above the 
section. 

Mass Accretion is the Increase in Volume of the 
Growing Tree. The volume increase of standing trees can 
only he arrived at approximately, and is based on the measure- 
ment of the volumes of trees of different ages; the difference will 
be the increase for the period. The increase in volume is often 
calculated as simple interest, but where the mass of the tree is 
considered as capital, interest is computed as compound. 

The Rate of Mass Accretion of a Standing Tree 
May be Determined in the following manner: In mature 
Uccs tlio height growth per year is inconsiderable, and may be 
disregarded for short periods of time. The present and past vol- 
umes, then, vary as their respective basal areas. Taking twice 
the width of the rings for the period desired from the present 



140 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

diameter will give approximately the former diameter of the tree. 
From this diameter obtain the area at that time, and compute 
percentage of growth from the difference between that and the 
present area. 

For example: By cutting into the trunk of a tree, or by 
removing a core of wood with an accretion borer, and measur- 
ing the thickness of the annual rings for ten years, we find it to 
be .5 inch, and the present diameter of the tree inside bark is 
twenty inches. 

Increase in diameter for ten years 5X2=1 inch 

Diameter of tree ten years ago 20 — 1^19 inches 

Present cross-sectional area with diameter 20 

inches 2.1817 square feet 

Area ten years ago, with diameter IQ inches. ..1.9689 square feet 

Increase in area for ten years 2128 square foot 

Per cent increase 2128X100-^-10X1-9689=1% 

The Determination of the Rate of Mass Accretion of 
a Standing Tree with compound interest is a more difficult 
matter, but Pressler, an eminent German forester, calculated 
tables for average thrifty trees and for very thrifty trees, the use 
of which renders the work of computation very simple. The 
width of rings for the desired period is measured, and the diam- 
eter divided by twice the width of these rings. This gives rela- 
tive diameter, opposite which, in Pressler's tables (see page 141) 
will be found a number which is to be divided by the number of 
years in the period. The result will be the per cent of accretion 
with compound interest. For example: A Cottonwood sixteen 
inches in diameter shows a growth of 2.2 inches on the radius 
for the last ten years. The diameter increase would then be 4.4 
inches, and by dividing the diameter by the diameter increase, 3.6 
is found to be the relative diameter. In Pressler's tables, oppo- 
site 3.6 is found the number 81 in the column of average thrifty 
trees. Divide 81 by ten (the numlier of years), and obtain the 
rate of increase with compound interest, 8.1 per cent. 



PRESSLER'S TABLE. 



141 



PRESSI^ER'S TABI,E. 





ij 


u 




u 


u 




V 


<u 


V 


V 




C 


<j 




V 


41 




ii 


V 




<u 


u 


V 


<u 




ii 


V 




S 


U 




u 


u 




u 


u 


u 


u 




u 


u 


ir. 


u 


H 


u 


t-i 




(^ 


H 


i-i 


^ H 


H 


U 


H 


H 


u a 


V 




D V 


<u\ 




Of u 


n . 




a V o ^ 




V 4J 


u\ 




>X 


6t>> 


>, 


> r! 


SdX 


>% 




M>^ 


>. 


> f bo!*> 


>. 


>r. 


bO>> 


>. 


tM V 






.^ OJ 






-t* 4J 






•^ 4> 1 Xr*.* 




.Zi If 








CQit^ 






rtv« 


. *^ 


153 


rtCi 




^ ^ 1 TO w- 




15S 


?3 1*_ 




u'C 


CTT 


a S 




C't. 


1, 1- 


>'-Z 


i5S \v-C 


t'^ 


l/'l. 


t:^ 


1..2 


>.c 


<ij ^ 


il.2 


> .c 


v^ 


■J.iS 


>S 


jj j: ! 


1/.5 \>x 


i-J= 


■j.s 


>j: 


iiS 


«a 


<H 


>c-i 


aUQ 


<y 


>H 


CriQ 


<H 


>Hl 


«Q |<:-H 


>H 


o:Q 


<^ 


>H 


2.0 


144 


156 


59 


49 


54 


9.7 


29 


32 


18.5 15 


17 


39 


6.9 


7.8- 


2.1 


138 


150 


6.0 


48 


53 


9 8 


29 


32 


19.0 14 


16 


40 


6.8 


7.6 


2.2 


132 


144 


6.1 


47 


53 


9.9 


28 


32 


19.5 


14 


16 


41 


6.6 


7.4 


•4.3 


127 


139 


6.2 


46 


52 


10.0 


28 


31 


20.0 


14 


15 


42 


6.4 


7.2 


2.4 


122 


134 


6.3 


45 


51 


10.2 


27 


31 


20.5 


13 


15 


43 


6.3 


7.1 


2.6 


117 


129 


6.4 


45 


50 


10.4 


27 


30 


21.0 


13 


15 


44 


6.1 


6.9 


2.6 


113 


124 


6.5 


44 


49 


10.6 


26 


30 


21.5 


13 


14 


45 


6.0 


6.7 


2.7 


109 


120 


6.6 


43 


48 


10.8 


26 


29 


2^.0 


12 


14 


46 


5 9 


6.6 


2.8 


105 


116 


6.7 


42 


48 


11.0 


25 


28 


22.5 


12 


14 


47 


5.8 


6.5 


2.9 


101 


112 


6.8 


42 


47 


11.2 


25 


28 


1230 


12 


13 


48 


5.6 


6.3 


3.0 


98 


109 


6.9 


41 


46 


11.4 


24 


27 


23.5 


12 


13 


50 


5.4 


6.1 


3.1 


95 


105 


7.0 


40 


45 


11.6 


24 


27 


24.0 


11 


13 


52 


5.2 


5.9 


•3.2 


92 


102 


7.1 


40 


45 


11.8 


23 


26 


24.5 


11 


12 


54 


5.1 


5.7 


3.3 


89 


{»9 


7.2 


39 


44 


12.0 


23 


26 


25.0 


11 


12 


56 


4.9 


5 5 


3.4 


86 


96 


7.3 


39 


44 


12 2 


23 


26 


25. 5 


11 


12 


58 


4.7 


5.3 


3.5 


84 


9b 


7.4 


.38 


43 


12.4 


22 


25 


26.0 


10 


12 


60 


4.5 


5.1 


3.6 


81 


91 


7.5 


38 


42 


12.6 


22 


25 


26.5 


10 


12 


62 


4.4 


4.9 


3.7 


79 


88 


7.6 


37 


42 


12.8 


22 


24 1 


27.0 


10 


11 


64 


4.2 


4.7 


3.8 


77 


86 


7.7 


37 


41 


13.0 


21 


24 i 


27.5 


9.9 


11 


66 


4.1 


4.6 


3.9 


75 


84 


7.8 


36 


41 


13.2 


21 


24 1 


28.0 


9.7 


11 


68 


3.9 


4 4 


4.0 


73 


81 


7.9 


36 


40 


13.4 


21 


23 


28.5 


9.5 


11 


70 


3.8 


4.3 


4.1 


71 


79 


8.0 


35 


40 


13.6 


20 


23 


29.0 


9.3 11 1 


72 


3.7 


4.2 


4.2 


69 


77 


8.1 


a5 


.39 


13.8 


20 


23 


29.5 9.2 10.5 


74 


3.6 


4.1 


4.3 


68 


76 


8.2 


34 


.39 


14.0 


20 


22 


30. 9.0 10.0 


76 


3.6 


4.0 


4.4 


66 


74 


8.3 


34 


38 


14.2 


19 


22 


30.5 i 8.9 10.0 


78 


3.5 


3.9 


4.5 


65 


72 


8.4 


34 


38 


14.4 


19 


22 


31.0 


8.7 


9.8 


80 


3 4 


3.8 


4.6 


63 


70 


8.5 


33 


37 


14.6 


19 


21 


131.5 


8.6 


9.7 


85 


3.2 


3.6 


4.7 


62 


69 


8.6 


33 


37 


14.8 


19 


21 


32.0 


8.5 


9.5 


90 


3.0 


3.4 


4.8 


60 


67 


8.7 


32 


86 


1.5.0 


18 


21 


32.5 


8.4 


9.4 


100 


2.7 


3.0 


4.9 


59 


m 


8 8 


32 


36 


15.2 


18 


20 


33.0 


8.2 


9.2 


110 


2.4 


2.7 


5.0 


58 


65 


8.9 


32 


35 


15.4 


18 


20 


33.5 


8.1 


9.1 


120 


2.2 


2.5 


5.1 


56 


63 


9.0 


31 


35 


15.6 


18 


20 


34.0 


7.9 


8.9 


130 


2.1 


2.3 


5.2 


55 


62 


9.1 


31 


35 


15 8 


17 


20 


34.5 


7.8 


8.8 


140 


1.9 


2.2 


5.3 


54 


61 


9.2 


31 


34 


16.0 


17 


19 


35.0 


7.7 


8.6 


1.50 


1.8 


2.0 


5.4 


53 


60 


9.3 


30 


34 


16.5 


17 


19 


35.5 


7.6 


8.5 


170 


1.6 


1.8 


5.5 


52 


59 


9.4 


30 


34 


17.0 


16 


18 


86.0 


7 5 


8.4 


200 


1.3 


1.5 


5.6 


51 


57 


9.5 


29 


33 


17.5 


10 


18 


37.0 


7 3 


8.2 


250 


1.1 


1.2 


5.7 


50 


56 


9.6 


29 


33 


18.0 


15 


17 


38.0 


7.1 


8.0 


300 


0.9 


1.0 


5.8 


49 


55 



























In Determining the Accretion of a Felled Tree tlie 

volume is computed from actual measurements. By a few trials 
the top is cut off where the section contains as many rings as 
there are years in the period for which the accretion is desired, 
and the height of the tree at that time measured. The difference 
in volumes past and present gives periodic accretion. The 
diameter for both the past and present tree may be taken at the 
middle of the topless stem, and volumes found by multiplying 



142 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 




Figure iS. The progressive volume of a tree. 



ACCRETION OF A FELLED TREE. 



143 



their respective cross-sectional areas at that point by the length 
of the topless trunk. 

A more careful stem analysis of a tree affords detailed meas- 
urements from which the volume at any time during its lifetime 
may be determined very accurately. The following table of 
measurements of a pine will furnish data for the calculation of 
its volume at different ages, and its progressive development is 
graphically illustrated in Figure 38: 



"o 




5S^ 


Age. 


Accretion in inches during past 


M 


10 


20 


30 40 


50 


60 


70 


V <J 

W8! 




•2 55 n 




years. 


years. 


years, years. 


years. 


years. 


years. 


OJ3 


0.SJ3 








1 











9.3 


8.52 


65 


.54 


l.IO 


1.60 


2.16 


2.80 


3.70 


4.26 


10 


7.8 


7.16 


57 


.50 


.94 


1.34 


1.92 


2.68 2.70 




18 


7.1 


6.98 


51 


.0/ 


1.07 


1.58 


2.30 


3.37 3.49 




26 


6.3 


5.88 


42 


.42 


.99 


1.51 


2.59 


2.94 




34 


5.7 


4.92 


39 


.44 


1.03 


1.71 


2.46 






42 


4.4 


3.94 


28 


.48 


1.23 


1.97 










50 


3.0 


2.48 


19 


.56 


1.24 












58 


.5 


.48 


5 


.24 














60 


Top 





















The Accretion of a Forest for a given number of years 
is found by multiplying the accretion of the sample tree for that 
period by the number of trees per acre and the number of acres 
in the tract. If the trees are arranged in diameter classes, the 
accretion of each class is determined, and the sum of accretions 
of all the classes taken as the accretion of the forest. 

The Working Plan of a forest contemplates the economic 
management of the growing crop, so that there may be cut each 
year not to exceed the amount of the annual accretion; or, if 
worked on the rotation plan, so that there may be cut at any one 
time not more than the accretion for the period of rotation, thus 
leaving the capital stock unimpaired. The methods of measure- 
ment described are used in outlining this plan. 

The ]^stimation of Standing Timber is usually a matter 
of personal experience on the part of the estimator. No meas- 
urements are taken of trees, but the estimate is made by men of 
long experience in the woods. Sometimes their figures are very 
close, but more often they fall short of the actual stand of tim- 
ber. Buying and selling timber lands is based on this method of 
determining the possible crop, both parties sending out their 



144 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

own estimators. The number of trees on typical areas, as an 
acre in each forty, may. be counted, and the sizes estimated. 
Often all timber trees on a forty-acre lot are counted, and the 
number of logs per 1,000 feet board measure estimated. 

For an inexperienced person a good method would be to 
caliper all trees on typical areas of the tract, and then compute 
the stand from the cross-sectional area and the average length of 
timber stick, which could be estimated very closely after a little 
practice. The greatest ditficulty in this work lies in the selection 
of typical areas and sample trees. All forestry measurements 
and estimates are only approximations, and it is often found 
necessary to modify working plans to meet new information 
and changed conditions. 

MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND LUMBER. 

I/Ogs are Measured in Feet Board Measure by taking 

the length and diameter at the small end, and by reference to a 
table the corresponding number of feet board measure is found. 
This is not usually accurate, but seems to be sufficiently so to 
satisfy both buyer and seller in this state. Lumber is measured 
in square feet of surface of a board one inch in thickness, com- 
monly called board measure, or B. M., for short. 

Scaling I/Ogs in Minnesota is a Simple Matter. It is 
done after they are cut from the tree and marked, wherever con- 
venient, — in the woods, on skidways, on cars, on the river, or 
elsewhere. For straight, sound logs no experience is necessary, 
but for defective logs the scaler's judgment is depended upon to 
make proper deduction, so as to get out good lumber. Private 
scalers may be employed by those interested, but, to avoid possi- 
ble litigation over sales, it is advisable to have the surveyor gen- 
eral of logs and lumber for the district appoint an official scaler 
to do the work. The scalers enter in a book carried for the pur- 
pose the number of logs scaled, the length, the feet B. M., the 
number of each log if numbered, the section, township and range 
where cut, and the markings. These books are kept on file in 
the surveyor general's office for future reference. There are 
seven lumber districts provided for by law in Minnesota, but in 
only five has it been found necessary to open offices, namely, at 
Stillwater, Minneapolis, Wabasha, Duluth and Crookston. 



SCALING. 



145 



The Minnesota law provides that Scribncr's rule be the only 
legal rule for the survey of logs in this state, and that every log 
shall be surveyed by the largest number of even feet which it 
contains in length over ten feet and under twenty-four feet, and 
all logs of twenty-four feet or more shall be surveyed as two 
logs or more. As to what Scribner's rule is the law does not 
say, and yet requires it to be posted in the offices of the surveyors 
general of logs and lumber. The following table is a copy of 
Scribner's rule as used here: 

SCRIBNER'S RUI^E. 



in 
u 

V 




I,OG I^ENGTHS IN FeET. 




|£ 














Ef 














55 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


8 


24 


28 


32 


40 


44 


48 


9 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


56 


10 


40 


45 


50 


55 


65 


70 


11 


50 


55 


65 


70 


80 


90 


12 


59 


69 


79 


88 


98 


108 


13 


73 


85 


97 


109 


122 


134 


14 


86 


100 


114 


129 


143 


157 


15 


107 


125 


142 


160 


178 


196 


11) 


119 


139 


159 


178 


198 


218 


17 


139 


162 


185 


208 


232 


255 


18 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


293 


11) 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


330 


20 


210 


245 


280 


315 


350 


385 


21 


228 


2156 


304 


342 


380 


418 


22 


251 


292 


334 


376 


418 


460 


2a 


283 


330 


377 


424 


470 


518 


24 


303 


353 


404 


454 


505 


555 


25 


344 


401 


459 


516 


573 


mi 


26 


375 


439 


500 


562 


625 


688 


27 


411 


479 


548 


616 


684 


753 


28 


43(5 


509 


582 


654 


728 


800 


29 


457 


5:59 


609 


685 


761 


838 


30 


493 


575 


657 


739 


821 


904 


31 


632 


622 


710 


7i)9 


888 


976 


32 


552 


644 


736 


828 


920 


1012 


38 


588 


(586 


784 


882 


980 




34 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 




35 


657 


766 


876 


985 


1095 




36 


692 


807 


923 


1038 


1152 




37 


772 


901 


1029 


1158 


1287 




38 


801 


934 


1068 


1201 






39 


840 


980 


1120 


1260 






40 


9a3 


1053 


1204 


ia54 






41 


954 


1113 


1272 


1431 






42 


1007 


1175 


1343 








43 


1046 


1222 


1396 








44 


1110 


1295 


1430 








45 


1139 


1315 


1587 








40 


1190 


1380 


16.=i6 








47 


1242 


1445 


1728 








48 


1296 


1512 


1818 









10 



140 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



The Number of Feet B. M. which May be Obtained 
from a I/Og varies with the management of the cutting, the 
width of kerf, the width of boards, whether one or two inch 
boards, or some of both are cut from the same log. Usually the 
cut exceeds the scale. Take, for example, a log sixteen inches in 
diameter at the small end, eighteen inches at the middle, twenty 
inches at the large end, and twelve feet long. Such a log con- 
tains about 21.2 cubic feet. The official scale gives 119 feet B. 
M., which is equal to 9.9 cubic feet. The actual cut should give 
I5S75 feet B. M., or thirteen cubic feet of lumber, the slab would 
be about 5.3 cubic feet, and the kerf (sawdust) about 2.9 cubic 
feet. From this it would appear that the Minnesota of^cial scale 
gives the seller 46.7 per cent of his log, while the mill turns out 
61.3 per cent in lumber, 13.7 per cent in sawdust and 25 per 
cent in slab. The producer loses 53.3 per cent of the scaled log; 
but that is not all his loss. In marking logs to be cut the under- 
cutter allows at least three inches over the required length to 
cover loss in checking; that is, a log scaled at twelve foot length 
would really measure twelve feet and three inches, or more. 

The Percentage of the I/Ogs,on which the seller or pro- 
ducer gets returns varies with different sizes and shapes. The 
following table will serve as a comparison: 







Scale 




Per cent 


Diameters 


I,etigths 
Feef. 






Volume 
C. F. 


of Actual 


Inches. 






Volume 






B. M. 


C. F. 




Scaled. 


21-22 


16 


304 


25.3 


40.3 


62.8 


18-19 


22 


293 


24.4 


41.1 


59.4 


18-21 


16 


213 


17.9 


33.2 


53.9 


16-18 


16 


159 


13.3 


25.2 


52.8 


15-22 


16 


142 


11.8 


29.9 


39.5 


1 -16 


14 


125 


10.6 


18.3 


57.9 


16-20 


12 


119 


9.9 


21.2 


46.7 


14-18 


12 


86 


7.2 


16.8 


42.9 


14-15 


12 


86 


7.2 


13.8 


52.2 


10-14 


20 


65 


5.4 


15.7 


34.4 


11-13 


16 


65 


5.4 


12.6 


42.9 


11-12 


16 


65 


5.4 


11.5 


47.0 


11-15 


12 


50 


4.2 


11.1 


37.8 


10-12 


16 


50 


4.2 


10.6 


39.6 


8-10 


16 


32 


2.7 


7.1 


37.8 


6- 9 


16 


16 


1.3 


4.9 


27.1 


9-11 


16 


40 


3.3 


8.7 


38.1 


8-11 


16 


32 


2.7 


7.9 


33.8 


8-12 


16 


32 


2.7 


8.7 


30.6 


8-13 


16 


32 


2.7 


9.6 


27.8 


8-12 


12 


24 


2.0 


6.5 


30.6 


8-10 


12 


24 


2.0 


5.3 


37.7 


9-11 


12 


30 


2.5 


6.5 


38 2 



FOREST INSTRUMENTS. 147 

In practice these discrepancies are equalized as the result of 
the ordinary trade relations, and are not liable to work serious 
injustice under present conditions, and are here stated only to 
call attention to our crude methods of measuring timber. 

INSTRUMENTS USED IN FOREST MENSURATION. 

The Equipment of a Forester, while not extensive, must 
be complete for the work in hand. He surveys the land, lays 
out roads and ditches, cuts down trees and saws them into logs, 
measures diameters of logs and growing trees, takes heights of 
trees, determines rates of growth, estimates and measures tim- 
ber and cordwood, and maps and plats his work. Where there 
has been a survey of land by the government, as in this state, he 
will not be called upon to make one, as maps sufficiently reliable 
for his purpose may be had from official records; but to meet 
all the requirements of his position the forester should be an 
expert surveyor, and provided with all the necessary instruments 
for the work, including drawing instruments, tables, stationery, 
etc., for office work, in mapping and platting his field observa- 
tions. The work of forestry mensuration is concerned mainly 
with taking diameters and heights of trees, determining the areas 
on which they stand and the rate of growth. 

For Measuring I/and Areas the ordinary steel tape, grad- 
uated on one side in feet, tenths and hundredths, and on the 
other side in links for convenience in computing acreage, is used 
— the lOO-foot length being preferred. For the same purpose a 
steel chain is also used, and with the chain or tape should be a 
set of marking pins and ranging poles. In laying out small 
rectangular areas, as a sample acre, a cross-stafY head, an angle 
mirror, or an angle prism is used; but for more extended sur- 
veys and for road and ditch work a transit and level would be 
advisable, while for the location of lost corners the magnetic 
compass might have to be resorted to. 

For the Rough I<and Measurement of a Valuation 
Survey a Steel Chain, Thirty-three Feet I^ong, is used. 
This short chain is attached to a stout leather belt about the 
waist of the tallyman, whose hands are then free to carry the 
tallyboard holding notebook or tally blanks, and to work with a 
lead pencil. A small magnetic compass by which the tallyman 
directs his course is fixed on one corner of the tallyboard. 



148 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



The Diameters of Trees and IvOgs are taken with a 
pair of wooden calipers of convenient size for the timber of 
the district. A limb or scale bar, graduated in inches and tenths, 
has a fixed arm standing out at right angles at one end, while 
a second arm is movable along the bar so that the trunk of a 
tree may be inclosed between them and the diameter read 
directly from the scale. The fixed arm is held in place by a 




Figure 39. Calipering a tree. 

screw so that it may be removed for packing and transportation, 
or so that a broken part may be replaced. The other arm has 
an adjustable plate which keeps it at right angles to the scale bar 
when pressed against the tree. Sometimes the circumference of 
the tree is measured with a steel tape, one side of which is grad- 
uated to give diameters of circles whose circumferences are read 
from the other side. 

The Heights of Trees are determined by means of a most 
convenient and useful little instrument, called Faustman's mir- 
ror hypsometer. The distance of the observer from the tree is 



FOREST INSTRUMENTS. 



149 



measured with a steel tape, and the instrument adjusted to that 
distance by the slide and vertical scale. The top and bottom of 
the tree are then sighted and the readings of the marginal scale 
where the plumb line crosses it added to or subtracted from 
each other, according as the eye of the observer is above or 
below the level of the tree. This instrument mav also be used 




Figure 40. Faustman's mirror hypsomettr. (ABCD.) Frame of in- 
strument, (h) mirror in which scale is reflec'ed, (a) eyepiece, (6) cross-wire 
on which object is sighted, (gc) slide and vertical scale for distance of ob- 
server from tree, (/) spring to hold slide in place, (/i) marginal scale which 
gives height of tree. 



in taking levels and grades, and may be mounted on a Jacob 
staff or tripod, but is more often used in the hand. Another 
instrument, called "Baummesser" by the Germans, mounted on 
a tripod, is used to take heights, and by means of a stadia 
attachment the diameter at any point on the trunk of the tree 
may also be measured. After some practice with one of them a 



150 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



person may become sufficiently expert at estimating the heights 
of trees to get along without an instrument. 

The Rate of Gro-wth of a Standing Tree is determined 
by removing from the trunk a small cylinder of wood with a hol- 
low auger, called an accretion borer. On this section of wood 
the annual rings are counted, and their width measured with a 
pocket rule graduated in inches and tenths, or in millimeters. 




Figure 41. The mirror hypsometer in use. 



Where the growth has been slow, and the rings are close, a 
pocket lens may be necessary to enable one to count them. 
When a fuller determination of the rate of growth is desirable, 
trees are felled with an ax, or with a saw, and cut into logs. A 
small saw is easier to carry around, but a longer, heavier saw 
does much faster work. The common logging saw of the Min- 
nesota woods is six feet in length. In making an examination 
of the end of a log the rough graining of the saw must often be 
smoothed away before the rings can be counted readily, and this 



FOREST INSTRUMENTS. 



151 



■^Ji^< . 



~rmKn:.' 



<fi 



—--■■ i^^J^ 



Figure 42. The accretion borer, showing handle, hollow auger, with- 
drawing pin and a core of wood extracted. The handle is hollow, with 
screw caps, so that the other parts may be carried inside when not in use. 




Figure 43. Using the accretion borer on the trunk of a tree. 



152 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

is well accomplished with a sharp knife, cutting a broad V notch 
from the center to the circumference. 

Miscellaneous Instruments used by the forester. For 
marking logs, blazing trees, cutting away limbs, etc., a hand 
ax is a desirable addition to the equipment. It should be small, 
so as to be conveniently carried in the pocket or in the belt, and 
should have a leather guard to protect the edge when not in use. 
As saws and axes will not keep sharp long, if used, a grindstone, 
whetstones, files and saw sets should be provided. In calipering 
trees on a small area across which it is necessary to make sev- 
eral trips, the surveyor avoids repetitions by marking the bark 
of each tree, as he calipers it, with a metal scratcher carried in 
one hand. Sometimes a pair of climbers are used to get into the 
top of a tree for the purpose of measuring upper limbs and diam- 
eters. The number of feet board measure in logs is ascertained 
by means of the ordinary log rule, Minnesota standard, used by 
scalers, and a board rule measures the lumber as it comes from 
the sawmill. 

A Camping Outfit is necessary where the work of the for- 
ester is done in the depths of the forest, tar from habitations and 
railroads, and perhaps a wagon and a team of horses or pack 
horses should be provided for moving camp and hauling sup- 
plies. If the area to be worked over is great, the chief of the 
party should have a good saddle horse, so that he may get over 
the country quickly, and lay out work for his subordinates who 
operate on foot. 



CHAPTER XL 

FOREST PROBLEMS IN MINNESOTA. 

The object of this chapter is to give general suggestions 
wiiich may be applied to a variety of conditions; and not to pre- 
scribe exact treatment for any special forest problem. It has 
seemed that certain metiiods of treatment could be best given in 
this way. 

I. .\. has a swamp covered with thrifty Black Spruce, in all 
about seventy-five acres. Last year he got 500 Christmas trees 
from it, which he sold at eight cents each. There is also some 
Tamarack and Pine on the higher land. For what trees can 
this land be used for greatest profit? How long does it take to 
grow Christmas trees? 

A)iswcr: If the Black Spruce are thrifty, it is a very sure 
indication that the soil is not overly wet during the summer, and 
that it is in very good shape for Tamarack or other more valua- 
ble tree. The Black Spruce is a very slow grower, and it is 
doubtful if it should be encouraged under any condition. Our 
native White Spruce grows much faster, and this would be much 
the most profitable of any of our native trees for paper pulp; 
but some studies by the Minnesota Experiment Station seem to 
show that the Norway Spruce could be grown at even greater 
profit for paper pulp. This tree is fully as rapid a grower as the 
White Sprucq, nearly as hardy, and the seed of it is much more 
easily obtained. If it is thought desirable to use this land for 
pulp wood, a small bed of spruce seedlings should be made up 
near by, in which should be sown White or Norway Spruce seed, 
and when the seedlings are three or four years old they should 
be transplanted to the swamp. It would take at least fifteen years 
to grow Black Spruce to a height of six feet for Christmas trees, 
while the Norway Spruce could probably be grown to the same 
height under same conditions in ten years. About 1,800 Christ- 
mas trees can be grown on one acre of land to a height of six 
feet and with a spread of five feet. Spruce may be grown closer 
together than most other trees for this purpose, because the 
shaded branches are not easily killed out. 



154 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

a. B. has a Tamarack swamp of 800 acres, from which he has 
cut all the timber big enough for ties. There is practically no 
demand for the smaller post timber at present, and he asks what 
he should do with it, and if it Avill pay him to hold it. The land 
seems to be well stocked with young trees of various ages, some 
of which have been somewhat broken down in getting out the 
larger tie timber. 

Answer: Probably the best treatment would be to let it 
alone. If the land is quite wet there is very little chance of fire 
doing much damage to it. If, however, it is liable to be dried 
out it would be a good plan to take some precautions to protect 
it from fire, if it can be done without too much expense. 

The Tamarack grows very rapidly, and there is perhaps no 
tree that will pay better than this, providing the taxes are not 
too high. While there may be no demand at present for the 
smaller stuff for fence posts, yet within a few years such a 
demand is inevitable, as the more accessible Tamarack is now 
being rapidly sought after for such purposes, and is being 
shipped in large quantities to the prairie farms. Such a Tam- 
arack swamp, if carefully looked after, is capable of continuing 
itself indefinitely and producing a fairly good annual revenue. 
The advisability of perpetuating such a swamp in Tamarack 
would depend largely on the demand for hay land, for which pur- 
poses such land is generally well adapted. 

3. A. has 5C0 acres of dry, sandy land. The soil blows 
badly, and is too light for grain. Clover does very well on this 
land when protected with snow in winter, but is liable to kill out 
in open winters. The subsoil is clay. 

Anszvcr: Such land should never have been cleared for agri- 
cultural purposes, and the sooner it can be got into tree growth 
again the better for the soil. The land should be seeded down 
with rye or other crop, or possibly with clover, until something 
of a sod is formed. In this sod Jack Pine might be planted, or 
it is very probable that Jack Pine would come well from seed 
sown in furrows made in the sod. After the Jack Pine is well 
established, about 500 Norway or White Pine per acre could be 
planted to advantage. This should receive only a moderate 
crowding by the Jack Pine, and should be protected from too 
much crowding until it can take care of itself. This number of 



FORK ST PROBLEMS. 1-j3 

trees would be enough to make a well stocked acre at maturity. 
Since the land has a heavy subsoil, the chances are that there 
would be a good tree growth, as trees are more influenced by 
subsoil than by the surface. If such land is very accessible, it 
would probably pay better to grow green crops on the soil, and 
by careful rotation use it for agricultural purposes, for which it 
may be fairly well adapted if carefully managed. 

4. B. has 600 acres of Jack Pine, four to twelve inches in 
diameter. The soil is typical of Jack Pine land, being very sandy 
and unfit for agriculture. What is the best treatment of it? 

Aiiszvcr: Such land is only fit for timber growth, and Jack 
Pine is probably the most profitable tree that can be grown upon 
it if it can be sold as fuel. The aim should be to keep out fires, 
and to cut the trees on the selection plan, removing the larger 
ones when they attain a diameter of ten inches. It may, how- 
ever, be best to cut clean on certain parts at eacli cutting, but 
the cuttings in such cases should not be so large but what the 
trees near by will seed the land. This tree has wonderful regen- 
erative power, and soon covers the soil with a new growth. It 
is rather impatient of shade, and the young seedlings do not do 
well under the old trees. It often happens that the cones on 
Jack Pines remain upon the trees unopened for a long time, and 
often fire sweeps over the land which scorches them, causing 
them to open and shed their seeds. As fire is to be avoided on 
such land, in order to protect the young growth, it may be best 
to gather the cones, and after roasting them slightly so that the 
scales open, scatter the cones broadcast over the cut-over por- 
tions. If timber is wanted, it would be worth while to try to 
secure a stand of Norway Pine seedlings. 

5. A. has a dry, sandy prairie, the soil of which blows badly 
when it is broken up. The trees blow out, and it is of very little 
value for agricultural purposes. Can it be used for forestry? 
The subsoil is fairly good, and there is standing water at a 
depth of about ten feet. 

Answer: Under such conditions trees should do well after 
they have once become established. The difficulty is in getting 
the land stocked. By seeding the land down to clover, with oats, 
in the spring of the year, the oats would come up quickly, and 
prevent the blowing out of the soil early in the spring, and the 



15G ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

clover would come along and probably make a good showing 
the next year. After the oats and clover have started, about one- 
half the land can be planted in strips, not more than sixteen feet 
wide and twenty-four feet apart. If these strips are planted with 
almost any of our hardy trees, they should do well. For this 
purpose the White Willow would be very desirable, but seedlings 
of Boxelder, Green Ash or Norway Pine should also do well. 
The strips of land in oats and clover will afford sufficient protec- 
tion to the planted strips to protect them from wind injury. After 
these strips are established and two or three years old the inter- 
vening spaces may be broken up and planted without danger 
of any further wind injury. 

6. A. has a piece of burned-over timber land on which there 
are scarcely any seed-bearing trees of value; the valuable pines 
have all been destroyed by successive burnings. Most of the 
land is perhaps two miles from any seed-producing White Pine, 
which was the most profitable tree on this land, and is undoubt- 
edly now the most profitable tree that this so'l can produce. He 
would like to have it restocked with White Pine. How should 
he go to work to do it? 

Answer: Since the seed-bearing trees are so far distant from 
the land there is no use depending upon them for restocking the 
soil with their seedling^, and the Poplar, Birch and Bird Cherry 
will undoubtedly soon reign supreme here, if they do not already. 
The best treatment is probably to gather White Pine seedlings 
that are under one foot in height from the nearby forest, if they 
can be obtained easily, and set them out, about twenty feet apart 
each way, amongst the brush pow found on the land, taking care 
to make a little clearing, as it were, where each tree is planted. 
The tendency will be for the worthless trees now growing on 
the land to smother out the pines before they get started, and 
it will be necessary each summer for several years to go over the 
land and cut away those trees that are crowdmg the young pines 
too severely. After these young pines have become established 
it is probable that they will be able to take care of themselves 
in competition with the inferior species, and then the crowding 
which they receive from the latter will be a good thing for them, 
as it will cause them to take on an upright growth. Plantings of 
this kind will probably cost somewhere about five dollars per 



FOREvST PROBLEMS. 157 

acre, and if the work is carefully done in the spring, just before 
the growth of young pine starts, there should be scarce any fail- 
ures. In setting out the seedlings it is important that they be 
kept in water or in damp moss from the time they are pulled out 
until they arc put into the soil again. They must not ever be 
allowed to appear dry. 

7. B. has land in Northern Minnesota covered with a mixed 
growth of pine and poplar. The poplar is about twelve inches 
thick, and overtops the pine, which varies from four to eight 
inches in diameter and from twenty to forty feet high. What 
treatment would be best to secure an even stand of White Pine? 

Aitsic'cr: While the poplar is hardly marketable at present, 
yet it should be removed even if the material taken out hardly 
pays for the expense of so doing. This should be done in order 
to give the pine a chance to shoot upward. .After the poplar is 
removed the pine will probably stand for several years without 
serious crowding, when it should be thinned to obtain best 
results. 

8. A. has 2,000 acres of burned-over land in Northern Min- 
nesota. This has quite a number of crooked and branching 
seeding trees, probably sufficient to seed the land, but the soil is 
so covered with raspberries, grass and poplar that the pine has 
very little chance to grow. 

Aiiszi'cr: The best way for giving a chance for the pine seed 
to grow is to drag the land in good seed years as well as can be 
with a drag made of oak branches or logs. This will tear up a 
good deal of grass or bushes, and make a loose surface soil in 
which the pines can take root; but the next year the weeds will 
again start, and will destroy the pine unless they are held in 
check in some way. This is probably best done by going over 
the land in June and July, and cutting off some of the weeds 
where the pines have seeded thickest. This practice should be 
followed at least two years, after which but little attention of 
this sort will be needed, as the pines will probably be able to take 
care of themselves from then on. If the land can be used for 
sheep pasture for one or two years, most of the weeds and bushes 
will be destroyed, and the land will be left in improved shape 
for the treatment outlined in dragging the land to get it into 
good shape for a seed bed. In fact, without any further treat- 



158 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

ment the pine will probably come in unless the land is very 
heavily pastured. 

9. A. has 2,000 acres of land in Northern Minnesota without 
any seeding trees. How can he secure a stand of pine upon the 
land? 

Answer: In such a case the best way is probably to set out 
pine seedlings, pulled from the woods, setting them about twenty 
feet apart each way. This will require about 400 plants per acre. 
If the work is done early in the spring there should be no great 
trouble about securing a good stand. These trees will be 
crowded by weeds on the land, which may help them to take an 
upright growth, but they should be watched, and the weeds kept 
in check, if they are liable to overcome them. After a few years 
the pine will be improved by the crowding of poplar and hazel 
brush, which is generally found upon such soil. 

10. A. has a half section of moderately good land, covered 
with an even-aged growth of White and Norway Pine. He would 
like to maintain a stand of pine on this tract, not that he thinks 
it especially profitable, but that it would prove an interesting 
experiment. 

Anszvcr: Even-aged pine is very difficult of renewal without 
clean cutting, and it is quite out of the question to handle such 
tracts to advantage on the selection system. There is practically 
no such thing as even-aged pine over large areas in this state. 
It is probable that this land could be best renewed by the group 
or strip methods. The land should be burned over clean after 
cutting, care being taken to protect any good groups of seed- 
lings that may occur. A stand of young seedlings should be 
secured on each piece of land cut over before further cutting is 
done. If grass or brush is coming in too fast, it will probably 
be a good plan to go over the land with a log-drag in August of 
the first good seeding year after cutting, so as to loosen the soil, 
that the seed may have a good chance to start. Grass and weeds 
often prevent the growth of pine seed, or even kill out the young 
seedlings after they are started. 

11. A. would like to have a good shelterbelt about the build- 
ings on his prairie farm, in central Minnesota, and would like if 
it could be made to furnish fence posts and fuel. He could use 
ten acres for this purpose. 



FOREST PROBLEMS. Ion 

Answer: He will probably come nearest to accomplishing 
this if he makes a solid planting of White Willow, as recom- 
mended on page 130. 

12. C. has a farm on rolling prairie. It is all under cultiva- 
tion or used for pasture. He feels the necessity of having a 
home supply of fence posts and light fuel. Thinks of putting his 
wood lot on the rich bottom land. The soil is a sandy drift, 
some ridges being more sandy than others, and in a few places 
are bare from washing. 

Aiisiver: Since the bottom land resists drouth better than the 
high land, it would be better to keep it for agricultural purposes, 
and to place the trees on the ridges, where the soil is too bare 
to yield a return from agriculture. He could probably plant 
White Willow in these locations to good advantage, and get 
what he needs in fence posts and a considerable amount of sum- 
mer fuel. It is probable that on such land there would be a 
yield of about three cords per acre of fuel wood per year, much 
of which material could be used for posts. These trees should 
be cultivated until they cover the land well. They should begin 
to yield some fuel within six years from the time cuttings are 
planted, if they are set two feet apart in rows eight feet apart. 

13. A farmer living on the open prairie in the southwestern 
part of Minnesota wants a windbreak and wood lot; more par- 
ticularly desires a windbreak for buildings and a shelter for 
stock. Does not think of raising firewood or his own fence 
posts. Can a windbreak be worked to advantage as a wood lot 
in such a case? 

A)tszvcr: Under such conditions the windbreak should be 
made somewhat wider than recommended on page 50, so as to 
include as much area as to give the wood desired. In cutting 
under such conditions it would be desirable to cut not more than 
one-half of any portion of the windbreak at one time, so that its 
value as a windbreak would not be impaired at any time. Work- 
ing in such a way would require a rotation period of about ten 
years. It would probably be best to plant this largely with 
White Willow, but if the soil is heavy or somewhat inclined to 
be moist it would be a good plan to put in some Soft Maple and 
Boxelder. 



100 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

14. What kinds of trees are best adapted to use for live fence 
posts? Should the wires be nailed directly to the tree, or on 
blocks of wood which are fastened to the tree? 

Answer: Probably the best tree for a live fence post is one 
of the willows or other hardy tree. Where the White Willow 
is used for this purpose there is no special objection to nailing 
the wire directly to the tree, except that the tree will soon grow 
over the wire, and it cannot then be removed. If it is thought 
that the wire might be removed within a few years, it would be 
much the better plan to nail it onto blocks of wood which are 
nailed to the tree. Willow trees which are used in this way as 
live fence posts may be cut off about a foot above the top wire 
and allowed to reproduce themselves. Such trees, if properly 
managed, will often produce a large amount of firewood, as well 
as afiford good fence posts. 

15. We have thirty acres of rather wet land which we do not 
expect to use for many years except as pasture. Would it pay 
to grow some White Willows on a portion of it, and would they 
interfere with its value as pasture? 

Answer: If the land is not heavily pastured, it might be a 
good plan to grow a few groups of willow on it, as they will 
furnish some protection to the stock, and do not interfere 
materially with the pasturage value of the land. Scattered trees 
might also be grown, as they would not seriously interfere with 
the growth of grass under them where the land is moist; but it 
would not be desirable to encourage a very thick growth on the 
land, since it is much more valuable for pasturage than it would 
probably be for growing wood. 

16. B. has come into possession of fifty acres of bluff 'and 
along the Mississippi river, in Southern Minnesota. The land is 
of good quality, but too much broken for agriculture, and when 
used as pasture it washes badly. The southern slopes are nearly 
bare of trees, but the other slopes are well covered with White 
Oak, Hard Maple, Basswood and Elm, with some Hackberry, 
Wild Black Cherry, Black Walnut and Butternut. It has been 
pastured for twenty years, and consequently there are no young 
trees coming on. He desires to preserve it as a wood lot, since 
it has become of little value for pasture. 

Ansii'cr: The first thing to do is to keep out the cattle, as 



FOREST PROBLEMS. 101 

they destroy all the young seedlings that start, and prevent any 
natural regeneration. In good seed years it might pay to loosen 
the soil, where it could be done easily, in portions that are not 
especially liable to erosion, so as to give the seeds that fall a 
good chance to grow. It would also be well to gather Black 
Walnuts and Acorns, and plant them in especially favorable loca- 
tions. Improvement cuttings should also be made where needed. 

17. A. has five acres of overflow lands along the Mississippi 
river. This is about four feet above the low water mark. It is, 
however, so liable to freshets in the spring that it would not be 
safe to use it for agricultural purposes, and it is not desirable 
for pasture or meadow. It is now covered with a heavy growth 
of White Maple and Cottonwood, and some White and Red Elm. 
What is the best way of managing it? 

Anszvcr: It would seem quite probable that the White Maple 
will become the most valuable wood of any now on the land, and 
it should be encouraged by cutting out the Cottonwood wherever 
it crowds, and also the White and Red Elm. The aim should be 
to have a good stand of White Maple, as it seems probable that 
this will produce by far the most profit. This tree makes a very 
rapid growth on good soil, and the wood is used for a variety 
of purposes. If the maples do not thickly cover the ground, 
there may be some chance for good pasturage under the trees; 
but under the best conditions there would be no opportunity for 
pasturage. This land would possibly yield about 500 feet board 
measure per acre per year if well stocked. Such land will proba- 
bly be used for meadow when the country is better settled, but 
this is perhaps no objection to using it for growing maple for the 
next twenty years. 

18. A. has a piece of gravelly land. It was originally covered 
with a growth of Bur, White, Red and Scarlet Oak, but was cut 
over about thirty years ago, and at present has a rather thin 
stand of stunted trees, many of which are sprouts from Bur 
Oaks. It is burned over every year. The land is of very little 
value for agricultural purposes. 

A)is'u.'cr: On such land the increase is very little, and there 

will be no profit in holding it for tree growth if it is taxed at a 

high rate. If, however, the rate of taxation is low, it is quite 

likely that the trees will yield a fairly good return. It should be 

11 



102 . ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

the aim of the owner to keep out fires, and so encourage the 
growth of underbrush and leaf mold, as this protects from dry- 
ing out in summer, which is important on such land. The large 
trees that are decaying had better be cut out, and the younger 
growth favored by occasional thinnings, where too much 
crowded. 

19. A. has a meadow which is subject to overflow in the 
spring of the year. The stream which runs through it is liable 
to sudden rises, and has made many channels for itself, and is 
continually making new channels. The land affords fairly good 
pasturage, but the cutting of new channels by the river is a 
source of great annoyance and loss. Is there any way that this 
can be prevented by planting trees? ' 

Ansiuer: Such streams may be permanently straightened out 
by planting willows across the cuts made, so as to confine the 
waters to a straight course. By this treatment a stream soon 
clears out a deeper main channel for itself, and the old high 
water channels gradually fill up with the sediment from the water 
which sets back into them from the river at times of freshet. 
The banks of the stream should also be protected from washing 
by planting willows on them. For this purpose willow cuttings 
of large size should preferably be used. They should be not less 
than two inches in diameter and six feet long, and be put at 
least three feet in the ground where exposed to erosion. 

ao. A. has forty acres near Minneapolis, covered mostly with 
a heavy stand of Sugar Maple, twenty-five years old, and two or 
three acres of Tamarack, Elm, Basswood and Oak. What treat- 
ment would be more profitable than to clear up for pasture or 
other purposes? 

Anszvcr: Such land as this is probably much more valuable 
for agricultural purposes than for forestry, unless it is stony or 
on steep hillsides, for the tree growth indicates a strong, valua- 
ble soil, and its being located near a large city should enhance its 
value for dairying or similar purposes. 

21. Some neglected lowlands have become partially covered 
with Cottonwoods and Willows, some of which are a foot or more 
in diameter. These trees are in irregular patches, covering per- 
haps two-thirds of the tract. The lowest places are quite wet 
and boggy. What income might be derived from a careful man- 
agement of the growing wood? 



FOREST PROBLEMS. 103 

Aiiszi'cr: Very litllc profit can conic from it in its present 
condition, except as it may be useful for pasturage. If, on fur- 
ther consideration, it is decided that it will be more valuable for 
forestry purposes than for pasturage, it would probably be best 
to encourage a growth ol White Maple, the seeds of which could 
be sown in furrows or in patches in June. The Cottonwood 
should be kept out as much as possible, as, since it is well 
adapted to this class of soil, it is liable to drive out everything 
else, and there is very little profit from the growing of it. 

22. I>. has forty acres of land covered with Maple, White 
Oak, Birch, Hackberry and Kim. He cuts his fuel from it, and 
makes sugar from the Maple each year, and finds it fairly profit- 
able. There are, however, no young trees coming on, the ground 
being entirely bare, and it looks as though in the course of time 
the old trees would ripen up, and there would be nothing to 
take their places. The land is so rough that it would not be 
profitable for agriculture nor especially desirable for pasturage. 

Aiis-Li'cr: The reason why there is no young growth coming 
on is probably because the land is closely pastured, since the 
foliage of the Maple, Elm, Birch and Oak is readily eaten by 
stock. The first thing to do is to keep out the cattle, so that the 
young seedlings may have a chance to become established. If 
the leaf canopy is rather thin, so that the light has encouraged 
the growth of grass under the trees, it would be a good plan to 
break up the soil just before the seed falls in good years. Possi- 
bly furrows could be made through the woodland with a plow, 
but if too rough for this, then it can be broken up by the drag- 
ging of several logs tied together over the land. It would be a 
good plan to keep out everything but the Sugar Maples, since 
these will undoubtedly be the most profitable, both for sugar and 
for fuel. As these seedlings come on, they should be encouraged 
to cover the land, by letting in a little light occasionally, if neces 
sary. This may be done by removing some of the old trees that 
are past their prime. After the young trees are seven or eight 
feet high no harm would come from the pasturing of stock 
among them for a few years, unless the land was so heavily 
pastured that the treading of the stock about the roots was 
injurious. If treated in this way there should be no trouble 
about securing a good stand of young Maples to come on and 
take the place of those which are maturing. 



CHAPTER XIL 

THE USES OF WOOD. 

Wood Serves so Many Purposes and enters so largely 
into human activities that it may indeed claim to be the most 
useful of all natural products, excepting only food. Iron is 
looked upon as the most useful of metals. Wood is not a metal, 
but in its usefulness it may be placed above iron, which it is 
replacing in many cases vv^here the latter was formerly used 
exclusively. Iron and wood have displaced and replaced each 
other in public favor time and time again, so that their respective 
claims to supremacy have not yet been decided. For instance, 
in the manufacture of bicycles, wood rims were first used, and 
then gave way to iron and steel on account of their lighter 
appearance and strength. Now, with better methods of con- 
struction, wood is again in use, and giving general satisfaction. 
However, each has its place, and the two often work to better 
advantage in combination. Experiments have shown that in 
tensile strength hickory exceeds iron and steel of the same 
length and weight, and hickory and long-leaf pine resist greater 
endwise compression than wrought iron. The elasticity of wood 
enables it to yield to greater stress than metals without receiving 
permanent distortion, and in like manner it will resist high tem- 
peratures without warping, holding its shape until consumed or 
broken down by mere weight. 

In Comparison with Iron, Wood is lighter, easier to 
work and handle, at present cheaper, and in many cases stronger 
and more durable. These facts, coupled with its abundance and 
ready adaptability, have brought it into such extensive use that 
the future depletion of the supply has become a matter of some 
concern to thoughtful people. Even now, in many parts, the 
local supply has already been exhausted (due much to extrava- 
gance and carelessness), and the inhabitants are dependent upon 
other regions to furnish their wood material, at an increased 
cost. Treeless regions, formerly uninhabited, are now teeming 



THE USES OF WOOD. 165 

with thrivins:. industrinus populations, whose standard of living 
demands the consumption of large quantities of wood, drawn 
from limited forest areas. The present supply is rapidly disap- 
pearing. 

To give the reader a comprehensive view of the manifold 
utility of wood, and to impress upon him the importance of main- 
taining a permanent source of supply of this essential material, 
we may group its uses into general classes, as an enumeration in 
detail would be too bulky for this volume, and. by sheer weight, 
fail of its purpose. In a general way, wood is thought of as use- 
ful for lumber and fuel. As firewood it heats our houses, cooks 
our meals, makes steam for driving the engines which run our 
flour mills, factories, light and power plants, street cars, laun- 
dries, etc. Different woods have their own fuel value, as indi- 
cated in another chapter; the supply of different kinds varies in 
localities; the price varies; so that we cannot say that one kind 
should be used more than another. Poor material must often be 
taken where none other is available. In Minnesota there is in 
the wooded regions a considerable variety of fuel woods. The 
most common are, for the hard woods (or, more properly speak- 
ing, broad-leaved trees), Maple, Oak, Elm, Ash, Aspen, Birch, 
Cottonwood and Basswood; and of the conifers (or narrow- 
leaved trees). Pine, Tamarack, Spruce and Balsam Fir. 

As lumber, we may convert wood into a yet more extensive 
variety of channels of usefulness, included under the heads of 
general building, construction and wood working. 

In Carpentry rough material is used in framework, as sills, 
studding, plates, joists, rafters; in sheathing, roofing, shingles, 
laths; while finished lumber is put into siding, floors, doors, win- 
dow frames and sash, blinds, stairways, stationary furniture and 
fixtures, columns, moldings, turned and carved work (solid and 
veneer). All kinds of wood are used for this work, according to 
the purpose and the taste of the builder, but Pine in larger quan- 
tities than any other, on account of its cheapness, ease of working 
and general utility. 

For Railways, wharves, piers, bridges, piling, etc.. heavy 
material is used; that is, large pieces. For railroad ties, bridges, 
pavements and culverts all kinds of wood may be used, but those 
best adapted to withstand the usage of the position are most 
desired. 



IGG ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

In Shipbuilding ribs, rib frames, keels and outside planking 
take Oak or other hard wood, with trenails of Locust; while for 
inside planking Pine is used, and interiors and decks finished to 
taste and usage with any wood. 

In Joinery, which includes furniture making, cabinet and 
box work, packing cases and crates, all kinds of wood are util- 
ized. 

In the Making of Cars, wagons and carriages the frame- 
work is usually of Oak and Ash, with covering of Pine and fancy 
woods, while the running gear takes Hickory, Oak, Elm, Ash, 
Locust,— butt cuts being especially valuable. 

In Cooperage, barrels, casks, tubs, kegs, pails, churns and 
tanks (staves, heads and hoops) are made of every description of 
wood, but for vessels designed to hold the finer grades of wet 
goods, as liquors and wines. White Oak only is desired. 

In the Manufacture of Farm and Household Machinery 
and implements, mostly hard woods of tough, durable qualities, 
as Oak, Ash, Hickory and Elm, are in demand. For wooden- 
ware (turned, carved and split-ware goods), again, all kinds of 
wood find a place. For baskets and wickerware, Willows and 
other pliable growths are used, while sounding boards of pianos 
and organs are almost always of spruce. In machine building, 
cogs, gears and pulleys are often made of hard wood, while 
frames of a stationary nature are of Pine. 

Timber for Mining Purposes is in great demand in all 
mining regions, and enormous quantities of it are required, so 
that the mines are among the largest consumers. In this state 
some of the deep mines use as rr^uch as eighty miles of log tim- 
ber per year, besides lagging. In mining, usually, the wood of 
the district is used for props, lagging, etc. The same may be 
said fencing— the most convenient wood is taken. 

Telegraph Poles require sticks that are free from large knots, 
and which are durable in contact with the ground. Cedar is 
much used for this purpose. Flagstafifs and masts call for long, 
slender, yet resistant, material. 

In I/Umbering a considerable quantity of timber is used in 
roads, skidways, booms, piling, etc., and a much larger quantity 
of the skidway and roadway material than is necessary is left to 
rot on the ground after a season's work. 



DISTILLATION OF WOOD. K'.T 

Wood Pulp and Distillation Products. One of the most 
iinportam iiKiusirics roniu'ctL'd with forests is their use for paper 
pulp. For this purpose all kinds of wood may be used, but on 
account of its superior quality and the ease of working little is 
used in this country at present besides Spruce. Many experi- 
ments have been made with Pop'ar. and it also is used to some 
extent, but Spruce is very much preferred on account of its bet- 
ter fiber. Paper pulp is made in two ways: First, chemical; 
second, mechanical. Chemical pulp is made by treating? the tis- 
sues of the wood with chemicals which dissolve out the lignin 
substances until only the cellulose or pulp is left. There are sev- 
eral processes used, one of which is by boiling the wood in Glau- 
ber salts for seven hours, after which the pulp is washed clean 
and bleached with chloride of lime until quite white. This 
process is more expensive than the sulphite prpcess, in which sul- 
phurous acid is used, but is said to give a better product. All 
kinds of wood may be converted into chemical pulp, but very 
dark colored and very resinous kinds are usually avoided. Ordi- 
nary paper pulp is made by grinding Spruce wood on large 
stones, against which it is pressed by hydraulic power. For the 
manufacture of very tough paper and of leather board it is cus- 
tomary to boil the wood a long time before it is ground. Wood 
that is cooked a long time before grinding makes a dark colored 
but very tough product. In the manufacture of ordinary print- 
ing paper the wood is put at once upon the stone, and the pulp 
from it is rolled into paper. It is customary to mix a certain per 
cent of chemically prepared paper pulp with ordinary wood pulp 
in order to improve its strength. Wood pulp is not only manu- 
factured into paper, but boards, buckets, car wheels, and a thou- 
sand other things, are made from it. Its use is almost unlimited. 

By the Destructive Distillation of Wood fall kinds of 
w'xul, all sizes. — logs, refuse, sawdust) wc obtain charcoal, vine- 
gar, alcohol, creosote, gas, tar; pyroligeneous, oxalic, acetic and 
other acids; acetone, paraffin, naphthalin; lampblack and other 
products. From the bark of Oak, Hemlock, Chestnut and other 
trees the tannic acid used in tanning leather is obtained. 

As we have digressed slightly by including bark under the 
term "wood." we may go farther, and take in also the sap from 
which is obtained turpentine, resin, gums and rubber, sugar, 
liquors, niodicines; the pith, which gives us food and fiber for 



168 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

clothing and other purposes; the fruit and leaves, whicli are also 
used for food, medicinal and chemical extracts. 

Wood is Made up of Cells which vary in form and in 
arrangement in different species. The cells are arranged in the 
form of irregular concentric cones, so that a cross section of a 
tree shows a series of concentric rings. For ordinary purposes, 
however, a log may be considered as being made up of a series 
of concentric cylinders, each cylinder representing one year's 
growth. If each ring is examined closely, it will be noticed that 
it is made up of an inner, softer, lighter-colored portion and an 
outer portion that is firmer and darker colored. The inner por- 
tion was formed in the early part of the season, when growth 
was rapid; this portion is termed the spring wood. The outer 
portion, where the cells are packed firmly together, grew in 
the summer, when the growth was slow, and this is termed the 
summer wood. Since the latter portion is very heavy and firm, 
it to a large extent determines the weight and strength of the 
wood. 

"Wood a Structure. On account of the peculiar arrange- 
ment in its structure, wood should not be regarded as a homo- 
geneous mass, but rather as a mechanical structure, the arrang*" 
ment.s of the units of which in each case should be carefully con- 
sidered in estimating its strength and its value for various pur- 
poses. 

Methods of Sawing. In sawing wood the relation of the 
saw cut to the annual rings is an important matter, and its ref- 
erence in relation to them has given rise to the names cross- 
cut, tangential and quarter-sawing. 

Cross-Cut Sawing simply refers to cutting across the grain. 
This method of sawing is seldom adopted other than for pur- 
poses of division, but occasionally it is used for making thin 
veneers, which are used in finishing panels and the like. 

"Through and Through," or regular sawing, refers to the 
ordinary way of sawing lumber, in which most of the cuts are 
tangential to the annual rings. 

Quarter- Sawing is sawing that is done perpendicularly to 
the annual rings of the wood. Wood thus sawed presents an 
evenness of grain not to be found in wood tangentially sawed. 
When cut nearly or quite on the radius the beautiful silver grain 
of some woods is thus shown to the best advantage. 



QUARTER SAWING. 



169 



Quarter-sawed lumber presents a more durable surface and 
warps and shrinks less than that tangentially sawed. If these 
points alone are the chief considerations, any wood is considered 
quarter-sawed that presents the edge of its annual rings to its 
surface at an angle of not less than forty-five degrees. This is 
done in various ways. 

Figure 44 illustrates one method of quarter sawing such 
woods as Yellow Pine, which are so sawed solely to increase 
their strength and wearing qualities. Slabs are taken off the 
four sides, then a cant A. B. is removed by cutting to within two 
or three inches of the heart. This cant is thrown back on the 
dock. Then the mill goes on sawing right through the heart C, 
taking off four to six boards, as the case may be, which are run 





Figure 44. Common method of 
ciuarter sawing Yellow Pine for floor- 
ing. 



Figure 45. Sliowing method of 
quarter sawing to bring out tlie figure 
of the wood to l)est advantage. The 
log is first quartered, t, 2, 3 and 4. and 
CHCh quarter is sawed as indicated by 
lines in 4. 



through llic edger and have the heart cut out. This leaves two 
cants of the same thickness. The one on the deck A. B. is put 
back on top of the one D. E. on the carriage and both are cut 
up together. Practically all of the stock thus made, except the 
boards taken off in slabbing, is edged grained, and if oak about 
half of it would show a fair figure. 

If Quarter Sawing is Done for the Purpose of Bring- 
ing out the Silver Grain of the wood, as is necessary in the 
case of White Oak for best effects, then the saw cut should 
always be made towards the heart and on the line of the silver 
rays. This is a much more wasteful process than the former 



170 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

method, and requires very different management. The more 
nearl}' perfect the quarter-sawing is done the more waste there 
is, and so it is the object of practical men to avoid the extremes 
of perfect quarter-sawing (at great expense in labor and mate- 
rial) and through-and-through sawing (which is cheapest and 
most economical of material). In ordinary quarter-sawing of 
this kind there is a waste of twenty to thirty per cent in material 
as compared with through-and-through sawing. This waste is 
found in the feather edged pieces and bevelled edges which have 
to be cut ofif, and in the very narrow strips of no value. Small 
logs waste much more than large logs in quarter-sawing. Most 
sawyers place the minimum sized log that should be used for 
quarter-sawing at twenty-six inches in diameter. It is very 
important to have quarter-sawed lumber wide, as narrow stock 
is of comparatively little value. In ordinary sawing there are 
always a few cuts made parallel to the silver rays which have the 
desired quarter-sawed figure. 

In practice, several methods of sawing are used to bring out 
the silver grain. The most common is to quarter the logs, and 
then saw each quarter, as shown by the lines in Figure 45. 

FUEL VALUE OF WOODS.* 

"The Relative Fuel Values here given are obtained by 
deducting the percentage of ash from the specific gravity, and 
are based on the hypothesis that the real value of the combus- 
tible material in all woods is the same. 

"It appears from Mr. Sharpies' experiments that resinous 
woods give upwards of twelve per cent more heat from equal 
weights burned than non-resinous woods; the heat produced by 
burning a kilogram of dry non-resinous wood being about 4,000 
units, while the heat produced by burning a kilogram of dry 
resinous wood is about 4,500 units, a unit being the quantity of 
heat required to raise one kilogram of water one degree centi- 
grade. 

"Count Rumford first propounded the theory that the value 
of equal weights of wood for fuel was the same, without reference 
to specific distinctions; that is, that a pound of wood, whatever 



*Tbis article on the fuel value of woods is taken from the "Report ol 
the Tenth Census," by Prof. C. S. Sargent. 



FUEL VALUE OF WOODS. 171 

the variety, would always produce the same amount of heat. 
Marcus Bull, experimenting in 1826 upon the fuel value of dif- 
ferent woods, found a variation of only eleven per cent between 
the different species tested. Ftumford's theory must be regarded 
as nearly correct, if woods arc separated into resinous and non- 
resinous classes. The specific gravity gives a direct means of 
comparing heat values of equal volumes of wood of different 
resinous and non-resinous species. In burning wood, however, 
various circumstances affect its value; few fire places are con- 
structed to fully utilize the fuel value of resinous woods, and 
carbon escapes unconsumed in the form of smoke. Pine, there- 
fore, which although capable of yielding more heatf than Oak 
or Hickory, may in practice yield considerably less, the Pine 
losing both carbon and hydrogen in the form of smoke, while 
Hickory or Oak. burning with a smokeless flame, is practically 
entirely consumed. The ash in a wood, being non-combustible, 
influences its fuel value in proportion to its amount. The state 
of dryness of wood also has much influence upon its fuel value, 
though to a less degree than is generally supposed. The water 
in green wood prevents its rapid combustion, evaporation reduc- 
ing the temperature below the point of ignition. Green wood 
may often contain as much as fifty per cent of water, and this 
water must evaporate during combustion; but as half a kilogram 
of ordinary wood will give 2.000 units of heat, while half a kilo- 
gram of water requires only 268.5 units to evaporate it, 1.731.5 
units remain available for generating heat in wood containing 
even a maximum amount of water. 

'"A factor in the general value of wood as fuel is the ease with 
which it can be seasoned; Beech, for example, a very dense wood 
of high fuel value when dried, is generally considered of little 
value as fuel, on account of the rapidity with which it decays 
when cut and the consequent loss of carbon by decomposition." 



tFrom a given weight. 



172 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF 
DRY WOOD.t 



Botanical Names. 



Crataegus coccinea 

Hicoria ovata 

Oslrya virginiana 

A melanchicr alni/olia . . . 
Anielanckiey canadensis 

Crataegtis tomentosa 

Hicoria viinima 

Qiiercits alba 

Quercus macrocarpa 

Robitiia pseudacacia 

Pruinis aniericana 

Viburnum lenlago 

Celtis occidentalis 

Carpinus carol iniana . . . 

Uhnus racemosa 

Crataegus crus-galli 

Fraxinus lanceolata 

Quercus coccinea 

Pyrus coronaria 

Ulmus pnbescens 

Prunus virginiana 

Gyninocladus dioicus 

Acer saccliariim 

Acer platanoides 

Gleditsia triacanthos 

Quercus rubra 



Common Names. 



White Thorn 

Shellbark Hickory. 
Hop Hornbeam . . . , 

Service-berry 

Juneberry 

Black Thorn 

Bitlernut Hickory , 

"White Oak 

Bur Oak 

lyOCUSt 

Wild Plum 

Black Haw 

Hackberry 

Blue Beech 

Cork Elm 

Cockspur Thorn . . 

Green Ash 

Scarlet Oak 

Wild Crab 

Slippery Elm 

Choke Cherry 

Coffee Tree 

Sugar Maple 

Norway Maple 

Honey I,ocust 

Red Oak 



Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 



Specific 
gravity of 
absolutely 
dry wood. 



85.85 
83.11 
82.4,3 



77.95 
75 49 
74.74 
74.39 
74.06 
72.96 
73.00 
72.82 
72.08 
72.26 
72.20 
71.54 
70.71 
70.82 
70.11 
68.98 
69.16 
68.88 
68.75 



66.04 



0.8618 

0.8372 

0.8284 

0.8262 

0.78H8 

0.7585 

0.7552 

0.7470 

0.7453 

0.7333 

0.7313 

0.7303 

0.7287 

0.7286 

0.7263 

0.7194 

0.7117 

0.7095 

0.7048 

0.6956 

0.6951 

0.6934 

0.6916 

0.6800* 

0.6740 

0.6621 



Mn this table the figures relating to North American species have been 
taken directly from or calculated from data in Sargent's Silva of North 
America and the report of the Tenth Census, and those relating to Eu- 
ropean species are from various European sources, 

*Air dried. 



WEIGHTS OF DRY WOOD. 



173 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF 
DRY WOOD. (Continued.) 



Botanical Names. 



Common Names. 



Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 



Specific 
gravity of 
absolutelv 
drj' wood, 



Betula lutea 

Fraxinus americana — 

Ulmus americana 

Betula alba 

Fraxinus nigra 

Larix laricina 

Fraxin us pen nsytva n ica 

Acer rubrum 

Juglans nigra 

Betula papyri/era 

Pyrus sambucifolia 

Morus rtibra 

Prunus serofina 

Betula nigra 

Pinus laricio austriaca . 

Pyrus americana 

Acer spicatum 

Acer saccharinum 

Pinus sylvestris 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia. . . 
Prunus pennsylranica . 
Juniperus virginiana . . 

Pinxis resinosa 

Populus alba 

Phius divaricata 

Pinus ponderosa 

Picea excelsa 

Populus grandidenta 

*Air dried. 



Yellow Birch 

White Ash 

White Elm 

European White liirch 

Black Ash 

Tamarack 

Red Ash 

Red Maple 

Black Walnut. 

Canoe Rirch 

Elderleaf Mount'n Ash 

Red Mulberry 

Wild Black Cherry.. .. 

River Birch 

Austrian Pine 

American Mount'n Ash 

Mountain Maple 

Silver Maple 

Scotch Pine 

Douglas Spruce 

Wild Red Cherry 

Red Juniper 

Red Pine 

White Poplar 

Jack Pine 

Bull Pine 

Norway Spruce 

Largetooth Poplar 



65.34 
(55.16 
64.54 



62.72 
62 16 
61 99 
61.65 
60.91 
59.40 
58.08 
58.56 
58.14 
57.42 



54.08 
53.07 
52.52 



.51.53 
50 03 
49.11 
48.41 



47.50 
46.99 



46.11 



0.6553 
0.6543 
0.650(5 
0.6400* 
0.6318 
0.6318 
0.6215 
0.6178 
0.(5115 
0.5955 
0.5928 
0.5898 
0.5822 
0.5762 
0.5700* 
0.5451 
0.5330 
0.5269 
0.5200* 
0.5157 
0.5023 
0.4926 
0.48.54 
0.4800* 
0.4761 
0.4715 
0.4700* 
I 0.46.32 



174 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THE WEIGHT OF 
DRY WOOD. (Continued.) 



Botanical Names. 



Common Names. 



Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 



Specific 
gravity of 
absolutely 
dry wood. 



Alniis incana 

Picea ma ria na 

Aisculus glabra 

Tilia americana 

Caslanea dentata 

Salix aniygdaloides 

Salix alba 

Popiihis nigra 

Salix nigra 

Pinusflexilis 

Acer negundo 

Tsuga canadensis 

Catalpa speciosa 

Populus balsamifera candicans 

Juglans cinerea 

Picea canadensis 

Populus tremuloides 

Populus angustifolia 

Populus delioides 

Pinus strobus 

A bies balsamea 

Picea parryana 

A bies concolor 

Populus balsawifera 

Picea engehnanni 

Thuja occidenlalis 



Speckled Alder 

Black Spruce 

Ohio Buckeye 

Basswood 

Che.stnut 

Peachleaf Willow 

White Willow 

Black Poplar 

Black Willow 

Western White Pine . . 

Boxelder 

Hemlock 

Hardy Catalpa 

Balm of Gilead 

Butternut 

White Spruce 

Aspen 

Narrowleaf Cottonw'd 

Cottonwood 

White Pine 

Balsam Fir 

Blue Spruce 

White Fir 

BaLsam Poplar 

Fngelmann Spruce . . 
Arborvitai 



45.88 
45.71 
45.03 
45.00 
44.95 
44.68 



43.42 
42.82 
42.20 
41.48 
41.42 
40.66 
40.38 
40.10 
38.81 
38.52 
38.47 
38.02 
37.26 
36.07 
36.11 
33.38 
31.53 



0.4607 

0.4584 

0.4542 

0.4525 

0.4504 

0.4502 

0.4500* 

0.4500* 

0.4456* 

0.4358 

0.4358 

0.4239 

0.4165 

0.4161 

0.4086 

0.4051 

0.4032 

0.3912 

0.3889 

0.3854 

0.3819 

0.3740 

0.3638 

0.3685 

0.3449 

0.3164 



*Air dried. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 



Decay in "Wood is due to the breaking down of the tissues 
by fungi. In some cases the fungus destroys the woody cells; 
in others it uses up the starch found in the cells and merely leaves 
a blue stain (bluing of lumber). Some kinds of fungi attack 
only conifers, others only hard woods; some are confined to one 
species while others may afifcct several species, but probably no 
one of them attacks all kinds of wood. Figure 46 shows the dis- 
coloration of wciod by a shelf fungus. The wood contains the 
fungus plant, which, when ready to produce its spores, sends out 
a shelf-like body on the side of the wood. These shelves contain 

the spores and may be found 
on many old decayed trees or 
stumps. Various odors are 
produced in the wood by some 
of these fungi; they may be 
pleasant, as those found some- 
times in the Oak, or unpleas- 
ant, as those infesting some 
of the Poplars. By studying 
both the favorable and the 
unfavorable conditions for the 
growth of the rot-producing 
fungi we may learn the best 
methods of increasing the 
durability of our woods, and 
thus avoid unnecessary waste. 
The soil and conditions 
under which wood is grown 
af?ect its durability. Conifer- 
ous woods with narrow annual 
rings are most durable, espe- 
cially when grown on compar- 
atively poor soils, in dense 
forests, and at high altitudes. On the contrary, the hard woods 




Figure 46. "Shelf" fungus on 
the stem of a Pine (Hartig). 
(a) Sound wood; (b) resinous wood; 

(c) partly decayed wood or punk; 

(d) layer of living spore tubes; 
(t') old spore tubes filled up; 
(/) fluted upper surface of the fruit- 
ing body of the fungus which gets 
its food through a great number of 
fine threads (the mycelium), its 
vegetative tissues penetrating the 
wood and causing it to decay. 



iro ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

with wide annual rings are' most durable, and are grown on the 
low lands and in isolated positions. The wood of most broad- 
leafed trees produced in the open is more durable than that from 
the dense forest. 

Sound Mature Trees Yield More Durable Timber than 
either young or very old trees. A tree is considered mature 
when it ceases growing vigorously, which condition is indicated 
by the flattening out of the crown, by dead branches in the 
crown, and by changes in the color of the bark. It is not indi- 
cated by size, since this varies in the same species according to 
circumstances. A small tree poorly situated for growth may be 
as old or older than a larger tree growing under better condi- 
tions. 

Intense Coloration of the Heartwood is a measure of 
durability in timber, and faintly colored heartwood resembles 
sapwood in its properties, only surpassing it in dryness. The 
tannin or coloring matter of heartwood is antiseptic. Where 
heartwood does not change its color or is lighter than the sap- 
wood the protecting substances are generally absent, and the 
wood is therefore liable to decay. This is plainly shown in the 
hollow trunks of willow and basswood. 

Sapwood Contains More Ready-Made Food in forms 
acceptable to a great number of kinds of fungi than the heart- 
wood. This largely accounts for the fact that sapwood is much 
more liable to decay than heartwood. This is especially true in 
the case of Cedar and Pine, where the heartwood is protected by 
resinous substances. But when the sapwood is well seasoned 
and heavier than the heartwood it lasts as long. Wood that has 
been once attacked by fungi becomes predisposed to further 
decay. 

The Time of Cutting Timber affects its durability only as 
the weather at the time of cutting affects the curing process. 
Wood cut in summer is generally affected by decay-producing 
fungi, rapid fermenting of sap, and by bad checking, owing to 
very rapid curing on the outside. As the cracks thus made go 
deep into the wood they may increase the danger from fungi. 
Where summer-felled wood is worked up at once and protected 
by kiln-drying, it lasts as long as that cut at any other season. 

Early winter is probably the best time to cut timber as 
regards durability, since it then seasons slowly at a time when 



DURABILITY OF WOOD. 177 

the rot-producing fungi are not active, so that it can cure over 
on the outside before summer. Many kinds of fungi and beetles 
find a very favorable place just under the bark of logs. These 
can be avoided, the curing of the timber hastened and its dura- 
bility greatly increased by removing the bark soon after felling. 
When trees are cut in full leaf it is advantageous to let them lie 
at full length until the leaves are thoroughly wilted (two or three 
weeks) before cutting to size. With conifers this is a good prac- 
tice at any season, and while not practical, yet theoretically all 
winter-cut trees should be left to leaf out in the spring before 
being worked. In this way most of the sap is evaporated, but 
in the care of timber that is to go at once into the water these 
precautions are not so important. 

Heat (60 Degrees to 100 Degrees Fahr.), Moisture 
and Air in moderate quantities produce conditions under which 
wood quickly decays. It is on this account that fence posts rot 
ofT near the surface of the ground, where about such conditions 
of heat and moisture are usually found during several months of 
the year. For the same reason what is known as dry rot 
destroys green floor joists or other timbers where they are tightly 
inclosed, as under a house without Ventilation, since moisture is 
always present in such places, and the timber cannot dry out. 
Perfectly dry wood or that submerged in water will last indefi- 
nitely, and there seems to be no difTerence in different kinds of 
wood under these conditions. Pieces of pine wood in good con- 
dition have been found in Illinois buried to a depth of sixty feet 
that must have been there for many centuries. Nearly sound 
pine logs are occasionally found in the woods of this state, 
where they have a thick moss covering that has kept them moist 
and prevented their decay for hundreds of years. The remains 
of timbers in the piles of the lake dwellers, which must have 
stood in place two thousand years, are still intact. In these 
instances the wood was kept moist, and never came in contact 
with the air. It is very evident, too, that wood which is kept 
in a dry place does not decay, since it may be found in an unim- 
paired state of preservation in some of our very oldest buildings. 
In the following table is shown approximately the time fence 
posts will last in Minnesota. This table is based on practical 
experience in this state: 

12 



178 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 



TABI.E SHOWING RANGE OF DURABILITY OF FENCE POST.S IN 
MINNESOTA. (Air dry.) 

Red Cedar 30 years 

White Cedar (quartered 6-inch face) 10-15 years 

White Oak (6-inch round) 8 years 

Red and Black Oak 4 years 

Tamarack (Redwood) 9 years 

Elm 6-7 years 

.\sh, Beech. Maple 4 years 

Black Walnut 7-10 years 

White Willow, 6 inches in diameter, peeled and dried. 6-7 years 

Curing is one of the most important processes in its efifect 
on the durability of wood. Well cured wood resists decay far 
better than fresh wood, because it contains an insufficient amount 
of water for the growth of fungi. Green wood covered with 
paint before it is dry is often destroyed by dry rot, since this 
fungus finds abundant moisture under the paint and the protec- 
tion which was intended for the wood really protects its enemy, 
the fungus. Paint and other wood-protecting compounds are 
efficient only when they are applied to dry material, which they 
preserve by protecting them from moisture. But fence posts or 
other timber to be used in moist places, if well cured, will, even 
if not protected, last much longer than fresh cut timber. The 
amount of moisture in wood, then, is the most important factor 
in influencing its durability. 

Timber is Best Cured Under Cover, where it is pro- 
tected from the sun and the full force of the wind, but has a 
good circulation of air. If piled in the open, it is a good plan to 
shade it. When piling green or wet timber, place lath or other 
strips of wood of uniform size under each log, post or tie. In 
pilir^ sawed lumber the lath should be placed at the ends, as in 
this position they in a measure prevent checking on the ends. 

From twelve to eighteen months is generally sufficient to cure 
wood for ordinary use, while for special work ten or more years 
may occasionally be required. If green or wet timber is closely 
piled in warm weather it is likely to rot. The best method of 
curing timber without resorting to the use of expensive appa- 
ratus is to work it up at once and soak it in water for from one 
to three weeks to remove the sap from the outside of the wood. 



COATINGS FOR WOOD. 171) 

It will then season more (|uick]y and be more durable than wlien 
dried without soaking. Sometimes it is absolutely necessary to 
thus water season large timbers, as it is impossible to get the sap 
out of them by atmospheric seasoning. Large checks or cracks 
in the ends of logs or other timber of large dimension may be 
avoided or greatly lessened by painting the ends with linseed oil 
mixed witli ground charcoal or other material to give it con- 
sistency. Covering with cloth or tarred paper also lessens check- 
ing. 

Good Coatings for Wood consist of oily or resinous 
substances that are easily applied in a smooth coat and dry 
readily, yet do not have any tendency to crack or peel of¥. They 
should be applied to the whole exposed surface. 

Coal Tar is one of the best materials for covering wood to 
increase its durability. It is best applied hot. especially if mixed 
with oil of turpentine, as it then penetrates more deeply. A 
mixture of three parts coal tar and one part unsalted grease, to 
prevent the tar from drying too quickly so it may penetrate the 
wood better, is recommended. One barrel of coal tar will cover 
from two to tliree hundred posts if it is properly applied. 

Oil Paints are next in value. Boiled linseed oil is used 
with lead, pulverized charcoal, or other similar material, to give 
it substance. Soaking the dry wood in crude petroleum is also 
recommended. 

I/ime Whitewash is a good preventive of decay in wood 
and, although not as good for this purpose as coal tar, it is very 
desirable. As with all other preservatives that are applied to the 
surface, the wood should be very dry before it is applied, and 
the wash should be applied evenly over all the exposed parts. It 
is on account of the lime that washes out of the mortar that the 
shingles on a roof just below the chimney last longer than on 
other parts of the roof. But if whitewash is to be applied to 
shingles it should be applied before they are laid by dipping. 

Charring those parts of pc>sts or timbers which come in 
contact with the ground is a good preventive, provided a thick 
layer of charcoal is formed and the work so carefully done as not 
to cause the timber to crack, since deep cracking exposes the 
interior to decay. If not cai-efully done the timber may be 
seriously weakened. 



180 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Antiseptics. The impregnating of timber with sulphate of 
copper (blue stone), sulphate of iron (green copperas), chloride 
of zinc, creosote, salts of mercury, or other similar material, has 
the effect, when properly done, of greatly increasing its dura- 
bility. Such antiseptic substances have the power of destroying 
the rot-producing fungi. The materials are often applied to fresh 
logs. If dry timber is to be treated, it is first boiled or steamed 
to open the cells. A hollow cap connected with a force pump 
is placed over one end, and the liquid forced through the cap into 
the wood, which results in forcing out the sap at the opposite 
end and replacing it with the antiseptic, but the more common 
method is that described below as the treatment given in im- 
pregnating railroad ties in Europe. All the antiseptics mentioned 
have been used to some extent for this purpose, but for various 
reasons chloride of zinc is now most generally used. Railroad 
longer than those not so treated. Impregnation also to some 
extent renders wood fire-proof. 

Iron Railroad Ties. A few years ago it was thought prob- 
able that iron railroad ties would come into general use in 
Europe, owing to the scarcity of Oak ties. They have, however, 
been found to give a very unyielding road bed, and are not gen- 
erally liked, and are seldom used for more than a short distance 
at railroad stations. The disposition now is to substitute impreg- 
nated Beech ties for iron, and the successful impregnation of this 
wood, causing it to become quite durable, has had a large effect 
in doing away with iron ties. 

The Impregnation of Beech "Wood for railway ties is a 
large industry in Europe. Without impregnation Beech is one 
of the least durable of woods, but by modern impregnation meth- 
ods it can be made to last at least fifteen years in any soil, and it 
is customary for concerns engaged in this business to warrant the 
durability of their impregnated ties for twelve years. Pine and 
Oak ties are not impregnated. 

The process commonly followed in many parts of Germany 
is about as follows: A large boiler-like tank is provided, which 
is about six feet in diameter and forty to one hundred feet long. 
This is made with heads that can be securely and tightly bolted 
on. It also has a small track for the cars which carry the ties. 
Before treatment the ties are mortised to receive the rail plates. 
After the tank is filled with cars loaded with ties the steam is 



IMPREGNATION OF WOOD. 181 

turned on for one to three hours, with a pressure of about tvjen 
ty-five pounds. This treatment softens the wood and dissolves 
the sap. The air is then pumped out of the tank, which removes 
the sap from the ties and leaves a vacuum. When this has been 
completed and the vacuum made, the impregnating material is 
added under a pressure of about 120 pounds. This forces the 
impregnating material into the cells of the wood. The preserva- 
tive material used is made up one-third of a three per cent solu- 
tion of chloride of zinc and two-thirds of dead oil (creosote oil). 
Chloride of zinc was formerly used alone, but it was found that 
it washed out after a few years, where the wood was laid in con- 
tact with the ground, and thus the wood was liable to decay; 
but by the addition of dead oil, which is itself a good antiseptic, 
the cells of the wood were effectually sealed over and water pre- 
vented from entering, and thus the chloride of zinc was pro- 
tected and the process made more permanent, 'ihe cost of thi? 
treatment in Hessen, Germany, is estimated at about twenty-two 
cents per tie. 

Among the other processes for the preservation of wood are 
the following: 

Kyanizing Process. In this the ties are steeped in a solu- 
tion of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), in the pro- 
portion of about one part bichloride to one hundred parts, by 
weight, of water. The time required for this process is about 
one whole day for each inch in thickness. This material is an 
active poison, and must be handled carefully. It has given excel- 
lent satisfaction in the preservation of timber which comes in 
contact with the soil, but soon corrodes metal in contact with it. 

Boucherie Process. In this process the timber is impreg- 
nated with a one per cent solution of sulphate of copper, either 
by pressure in a closed vessel, or by applying it to the end of the 
tie or log and forcing it through. This is an excellent antisep- 
tic, and is said to have doubled the life of the Pine ties in Europe. 

Creosoting. This process is very extensively used, and has 
given excellent satisfaction. The material is what is known as 
dead oil, of coal tar, and is obtained by distilling coal. Naph- 
thaline is its principal preservative. A similar oil, known as 
wood creosote oil, is obtained by the distillation of Pine wood, 
but is said to be much more soluble than the dead oil, and on 



182 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

this account more liable to wash out of the wood when in con- 
tact with the soil. 

Zitic Tannin Process. In this process the chloride of zinc 
is protected from being washed out of the ties by coagulated 
albumen. The process is as follows: The ties are impregnated 
with chloride of zinc mixed with a small percentage of dissolved 
glue. They are then subjected to heavy pressure, after which the 
solution is drawn ofif and a tannin solution added at a pressure 
of 100 pounds. This material combines with the glue, and forms 
a leathery, waterproof substance which permanently closes the 
pores or outer cells of the wood, excluding moisture and retain- 
ing the zinc. 

Burnettizing. In this process the timber is impregnated 
with chloride of zinc, the operation being similar to that of creo- 
soting. It has a wonderful preservative effect upon the timber, 
the only objection to it being that the solution is liable to be 
washed out of the ties. This is overcome in the modern treat- 
ment of the ties in Germany by using a certain per cent of dead 
oil with it, as previously noted in describing the method of 
impregnating railroad ties. 

Fire-Proof Wood. It has been known for many years that 
wood could be made fire proof by filling it with certain chemicals 
in much the same way that railway ties are impregnated. The 
most common chemical used for this purpose was phosphate of 
ammonia, and it is perhaps the best material for this purpose 
that has ever been used, but it is so expensive that the use of it 
is quite impracticable. The next best material that has been used 
for this purpose is sulphate of ammonia, but like phosphate of 
ammonia this somewhat injures the flexibility of the fiber and 
corrodes metal, and in addition deadens the color and causes the 
wood to be more hydroscopic. These chemicals, either alone or 
combined, have given some very good results, but have not been 
entirely satisfactory. They have been used in fire-proofing war- 
ships, where great results have sometimes been realized, as, nota- 
bly, in the war between China^^and Japan, where this treatment is 
said to have given Japan a great advantage in the greatest naval 
battle of that war. If a fire-proofing process were discovered 
that combined the merits of cheapness without injuriously affect- 
ing the qualities of the wood, it would be much sought after, and 



F1RI-; PROOF WOOD. 183 

its application would be almost endless. In order to be effective 
such a iirocess must not onlj' be cheap, but must not prevent the 
vvfood from liolding paint varnish and glue well, nor injure its 
fiber, nor corrode metal in contact with it nor tools used in work- 
ing it. neither must it increase its tendency to absorb moisture 



CHAPTER XIV. 

FOREST ECONOMICS. 

Alarm About Destruction of Forests ! For many years 
the attention of the people of this country has been drawn to the 
possibility of a depletion of our forests and a timber famine in 
the near future. But increased transportation facilities have 
made new sources of timber easily accessible to us, which fact, 
together with the use of inferior kinds of trees' for lumber, has 
kept the predicted timber famine from materializing, until now 
our people have become skeptical on this point, and look upon 
these predictions as very premature. To any one who carefully 
studies the subject, however, it will be very evident that our 
supply of White Pine, that most generally useful of all our timber 
trees, is fast decreasing, and that it cannot be many years before 
this will be apparent by the advance of prices for this kind of 
timber. Most of the land of good quality in Minnesota seems 
destined to be eventually used for farming purposes, but there 
will always remain a large area of stony or very sandy land that 
will be unfit for profitable agriculture, and which will produce 
more revenue when used for the production of timber than when 
used for any other crop. There is also a large amount of land 
that will not be needed for farming purposes for many years, and 
this should grow timber until needed for agriculture. Besides 
this, with the increased value of fuel, lumber and other forest 
products, there will come a better appreciation of the importance 
of farm wood lots as a source of fuel, poles, lumber, etc., for 
farm use, and a more general disposition to save some land for 
this purpose. 

Price of Fuel. At present in the greater part of our for- 
ested area north of St. Paul the timber is greatly in the way of 
settlers, and the price of fuel is simply the cost of gathering it, 
no charge whatever being made for the wood itself. This state 
of things exists because not only in the forests but more espe- 
cially in the great area of cut-over timber lands in that section 
there is such an immense amount of dead and down timber that 



VALUE OF FOREST INDUSTRIES. 1«5 

it is seriously in the way and far in excess of the fuel demands 
of the settlers on those lands for a score of years to come. There 
seems to be something incongruous in the fact that while one- 
half of our state is prairie, and sadly in want of fuel and othei 
forest supplies, the other half has such a superabundance of 
these products that they are going to waste, and only a small 
portion is considered worth marketing. 

Value of Forest Industries of Minnesota. The market- 
ing of the products of the virgin forest in Minnesota has added 
greatly to the wealth and prosperity of the state, and under 
proper management this source of wealth would continue indefi- 
nitely. The value of the forests of Minnesota is most easily seen 
by showing the number of men employed. According to the 
report of the Bureau of Labor, there were employed in logging, 
in the year 1899-1900, 15,886 men and 8,285 horses. The average 
time of the men was about twenty weeks. They were employed 
in 329 camps, and cut 1,112,000,000 feet board measure. The 
total wages was $2,988,900, besides board, or about $4,180,000, 
including board. 

In the wood-working industries, the following men were 
employed in the year 1900: 

Sash and door manufacturers 1,186 

Sawmills, shingle and lath mills 9-^79 

Planing mills 1,707 

Rattan and willow works 48 

Paper mills 229 

Lumber yards 276 

Wood-working shops 830 

Furniture and fixtures 1405 

Cooperage 772 

Box manufacturing 356 

Total 15988 

Making a total in the wood-working and lumbering industries, 
besides carpenters and builders, of 31,874 men employes. 

Possibilities of Yield of Our Forest Area. The best 
authorities agree that the normal annual increase on our 12,000.- 
000 acres of forest area should be about 2,000,000,000 feet board 



186 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

measure, or a mean annual increase of 185 feet board measure 
per acre. If this were true, it would leave a wide margin to our 
present annual timber cut without impairing our normal growing 
stock. In other words, this great lumber industry, of so much 
value to the state, would be continued indefinitely under normal 
conditions. But there is practically no timber land in this state 
under normal conditions, and there is little or no increase on the 
far greater part of our cut-over timber lands. On this account 
the continuance of our lumber industry is not hoped for by those 
engaged in it. In other words, we are working our timber 
resources as though they were a mine which can never be 
restocked. 

The timber lands of all civilized countries have passed through 
about the same wasteful conditions as those which now prevail 
here. While this does not justify the present deplorable situation 
here, it shows us that the trouble we are suffering from is a com- 
mon one, that will right itself with increased population and 
proper education. Previous to 1700 the forests of Germany were 
in much tlie same condition as those here at present, and a 
square mile of forest land could ])e bought for the present price 
of one of the oaks planted at that time. Our people are simply 
uninformed as to the possibilities of our forest land under proper 
conditions. 

IVike Any Other Business, Forestry Requires Capital. 

This is partly in land and partly in the growing crops of wood. 
Capital in wood may often exceed that in land. Income from 
forests comes as timber, fuel, bark, and in items of smaller impor- 
tance, such as grazing, fruit, medicinal plants, hunting, etc. 

Forests Should be so Managed as to yield an annual 
increase, as in this way the conditions for most successful market- 
ing are best met. Under such conditions, too, a certain amount 
of experienced help can be expected to become located conveni- 
ently near, as they will have steady work, while if the products 
are harvested at irregular intervals new help must be engaged at 
each harvest, which is extremely undesirable. 

In Considering the Returns from the Forest the fol- 
lowing terms should be clearly understood: (i) Normal grow- 
ing stock, (2) normal income, (3) capital stock, and (4) actual 
income. These are defined in the following paragraphs: 



NORMAL GROWING vSTOCK. 187 

Normal Growing Stock. Since the annual valuable 
increase of wciod is in pr()i)ortion to the amount of leaf surface 
on trees of the right kind, size and form, it follows that there 
must always be a certain number of trees of a certain size in 
order to obtain normal annual growth. This material represents 
invested capital, and the highest annual income is dependent 
upon having a-normal growing stock upon the land. As a mat- 
ter of fact, this is an ideal thing, and is seldom, if ever, exactly 
attained. The amount of normal growing stock which there will 
be upon one acre will depend upon the species, its age and con- 
ditions, and must be determined in the working plan of the 
forest tract after a careful study of its conditions. 

The Normal Income is the crop of wood that a given tract 
of forest will produce per year under normal conditions. This 
will, of course, vary with the species and conditions. It may be 
harvested by selecting only the large trees from all over the area, 
or by cutting clean over a certain portion of it. as shown in 
chapter X. It is very plain that, if the increase per year is a 
given amount, it may be harvested by either method without 
infringing on the normal growing stock of the whole area. For 
some conditions the selection method is preferred, while for oth- 
ers, such as for even stands of Spruce, which are liable to blow 
down when thinned, it might be better to cut clean, and keep the 
trees in even age groups. In this latter case the tract should be 
divided into as many parts as there are years in the rotation, 
and the timber from one part cut each year. This would mean 
the planting or seeding of a like amount each year. 

Capital Growing Stock. This represents the actual amount 
of trees on the land which is producing wood growth of value. 
The nearer this approaches to the normal growing stock the bet- 
ter the condition of the forest and the larger its returns. 

Actual Income represents the annual return which a given 
forest tract is producing. 

Increasing Value of Forests. In countries where forestry 
has reached a high degree of development a piece of land is 
regarded as being in forest as soon as it is stocked with trees, 
even if the seedlings are not yet over two inches high and are 
hardly to be seen at a short distance. Such a piece of land 
should have increased value and should be regarded as earning 
a rate of interest. It is so regarded in many of the European 



188 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

states, and money lenders there consider this matter as impor- 
tant when placing a loan; for while the increase on such land 
cannot be gathered at all for perhaps sixteen or twenty years, 
and then only a small amount, yet a certain increase in woody 
tissue is being stored up each year which will later on be har- 
vested. It should be regarded as being worth at any time a cer- 
tain proportion of its total value at maturity, which perhaps will 
not come for twenty years, but if a forest is reasonably protected 
from fire, it is almost as sure to earn a certain increment as that 
the conditions on the earth will remain as they are for eighty 
years. And if a forest is twenty years old, it may be in such 
condition that it would be wasteful to try to derive any income 
from it for perhaps twenty years more, yet it is worth perhaps 
one-third of what it will be worth twenty years hence. Thus, if 
at forty years it will yield ninety cords of paper pulp per acre, 
worth five dollars per cord, it should at twenty years be worth 
about $140, after allowing for compound interest at six per cent. 

Unproductive Forest I<aiid. In almost every range of for- 
est there will be some land that is quite unproductive. This will 
generally consist of ledgy land, or that which is elevated above 
the tree line, or perhaps may consist of extended swamps. But 
on this account it should not be thought worthless, but should 
be allowed to produce what growth it can, especially where it is 
valuable in protecting the sources of streams, and in the case 
of elevated mountain sides the scrubby growth of no value for 
timber may be very valuable in preventing land slips or snow 
slides. Of course, in the case of individuals having small hold- 
ings such considerations do not apply, but they are important and 
should be encouraged in any comprehensive forestry scheme. 

Kurop^ an. Systems ol Forest Management have been 
frequently referred to as being applicable to our conditions, but, 
while we can learn much of value from the history and practice 
of European forest administration, our conditions are so very 
different from those existing in Europe that much discretion 
must be exercised in adapting their methods to our conditions. 
The chief difference between their conditions and ours is in the 
higher price of their timber and their cheaper hand labor, which 
makes possible very different methods than could be profitably 
used here. The conditions in the remote parts of Russia are 
much more like those in this country than are, perhaps, to be 



TAXES ON FORESTS. 189 

found elsewhere in Europe, and there is still in those sections a 
great waste of forest products, and large losses occur there annu- 
ally from forest fires. But in the most accessible parts of Rus- 
sia, and in Sweden, Norway, and in the larger portion of Ger- 
many and France, there is a profitable market for all we term 
waste forest products, such as the smaller top logs, the branches, 
twigs, leaves, stumps, underbrush, and even the roots of trees. 
In this country such material encumbers the ground, and greatly 
increases the danger of forest fires, which is by far the greatest 
source of injury to growing timber. 

Taxes on Timber I^ands. The taxes on timber lands are 
generally excessive in this country, and entirely out of propor- 
tion to the value of the land, and it is largely on this account 
that owners of timber lands do not care to hold them. This, as 
a matter of state policy, is unwise, for the reason that it prevents 
the development of economic forestry. In most European coun- 
tries where forestry is well developed it is customary to levy a 
small tax on the land and to tax the products only when they are 
harvested. Such a tax system is almost unknown in this coun- 
try, but it is much more just for forest property than our ordi- 
nary taxing methods. It would seem that forest property ought 
to be regarded in a special class for the purposes of taxation, for 
the reason that as a matter of state policy it should be encour- 
aged, and the ordinary methods of la.xation retard its best de- 
velopment. 

Income Game Preserves. INIost of the European forests 
are used as game preserves, as well as for forestry purposes. It 
is well known, however, that the presence of large game in the 
forest is generally a great disadvantage, and that much injury 
may come from its presence there, and the rental of about twen- 
ty-five cents per acre, which is the price generally paid for the 
use of forest preserves, is not sufficient to cover the loss. 

The German forestry service generally think it desirable to 
have game in the forests for other considerations than that of its 
rental value, and chiefly from the fact that it adds interest to the 
forest, and in this way attracts the attention of parties who other- 
wise would not be so much interested in it. There is a great deal 
of sentiment attached to the presence of this game among 
the foresters themselves, and it is said that were it not for this 
sentiment Germany could never keep as fine a body of men in 



190 



ELEMENTARY FORESTRY 



its forestry service as it now has. In the renting of land as a game 
preserve, it is customary to limit the number of deer, etc., that 
shall be killed in any one season. It is customary to make an 
estimate of the game of the forest ranges each year. In the case 
of deer this is done by feeding them in paddocks during the win- 
ter. 

Government Supervision of Forests in Germany. It is 
the policy of the government in most of the German provinces 





ir -li^.yiiliJ- 


jji" ."kyf^iii ; 


fp^*3iP||^ <««.( 


^^^P^^MT^ In 



Figure . A fine young growth of Norway Spruce (Picea e.vcelsa) in 
the forest garden of the "Giessen Forestry School" in Hessen, Germany. 

not to interfere more than is necessary in the management of 
private woodlands, although the custom varies in the different 
provinces. On this account, where the land is not much broken, 
there are few requirements in regard to maintaining forests; but 
where the land is much broken, as is the case in the Bavarian 
Alps and the Black Forest, it is sometimes customary to require 
private owners to deposit the cost of replanting their land 
when tlu V cut their timber, and if thcv do not attend to the 



FOREST RESERVATIONS. V.n 

replanting within a certain period it is done by the government. 
It is the very general settled policy of the provincial governments 
to keep in forest about the same area that is now devoted to 
this purpose, and since the water powers in the valleys are 
dependent for the regularity of their supply upon the forests that 
are upon the mountain sides, the government reasons that the 
exercise of some supervision in this matter is necessary for the 
well being of all. Where forests are owned by municipalities, 
the numicipal authorities can generally hire their own superin- 
tendent, but in some provinces the government generally man- 
ages to have laws passed that will make it most convenient for 
municipalities to employ the government superintendent. In the 
case of municipal forests the governments generally allow the 
cutting of only the increase each year. If this matter was left 
entirely to the will of the people they would frequently sacrifice 
the future for present gains. This supervision may be likened 
very much to that which is exercised in this state in preventing 
cities and towns from acquiring an indebtedness- beyond a certain 
percentage of their taxable valuation. However, in case there is 
a pressing need for some public improvement, as for instance a 
schoolhouse. the government may allow extra cuttings for this 
special purpose, but in after years the annual cuttings must be 
lessened until the capital growing stock of wood on the land is 
made godd. 

Forest Reservations and National Parks. Many of the 
forest reservations in this country are in need of immediate 
attention. Much of the virgin timber on them has passed its 
prime and is decaying, and the constant liability to forest fires 
makes the young growth very unsafe. The increased demand for 
timber and the high price for the same has encouraged lumber- 
men in trying to have the timber on such reservations thrown 
onto the market. When cut in the ordinary manner there is 
practically nothing left, and the end of the tree growth is reached. 
If this were to be managed in a proper way the mature trees 
would be cut as soon as there was a demand for lumber, and 
those trees should be left which are still growing thriftily. In 
some cases there is talk of utilizing some of these reservations as 
national parks, and in America too often the park idea means 
simply a piece of land from which nothing is removed. The 
best plan for managing these large tracts of timber would proba- 



192 ELEMENTARY EORESTRY. 

bly be to use them as examples of good forestry, as well as for 
parks, as the one purpose need not in the least interfere with the 
other. It is quite customary in many parts of Europe to have 
woodland resorts carried on in this way. The carrying out of 
such a plan means practically the establishment of a business, 
which at the outset will employ a large number of men in har- 
vesting the mature trees, which will generally be from one-third 
to one-half of that which is standing. This business, however, 
will not cease to be productive when the mature trees are cut, 
but will go on indefinitely producing a certain amount of annual 
growth which can be harvested. Putting a reservation onto this 
basis would have the effect of building up the country perma- 
nently, and would undoubtedly lead to the establishment of sum- 
mer resorts in the most favored localities in them, which would 
also add to their prosperity. The government can well afford 
to do this, owing to the fact that it is perpetual and pays no 
taxes, while perhaps it would be extremely unwise for individuals 
to engage in such an enterprise, owing to the fact that taxes are 
too high and the profits are too long delayed. On many of the 
Indian reservations such an arrangement as this would result in 
great benefit to the tribes located there, for it would assure them 
in the continuance of their reservations as homes, and at the 
same time bring them in close contact with the whites, and give 
them regular employment and regular income. Such parks 
would be admirable army posts for cavalry, which could be used 
to prevent trespass. 

Minnesota State Forest Reserves. The legislature of 
Minnesota passed an act in 1899 which created the "Minnesota 
State Forestry Board." This consists of nine members, two of 
whom are members ex-officio, and the balance are appointed by 
the governor when recommended to him by the regents of the 
university and by the various agricultural and kindred societies 
of the state. The special purpose of this board is to act as trus- 
tee fpr the state in the management of any lands that may be 
donated to it for forestry purposes. It has also power to publish 
in a popular manner bulletins from time to time. Any person or 
corporation may donate to the state through this board any 
waste land it may have. The land is to be managed on forestry 
principles. At least once in five years the accumulated income 



FOREST FIRE LAW. 193 

from each tract that has been deeded is to be divided by the State 
Forestry Board as follows: One-third shall be divided between 
the state, county and town where the land is situated (one-half 
of said one-third going to the state, one-fourth to the county 
and one-fourth to the town) and two-thirds of the income shall 
be paid to such public educational institution in the state as may 
be designated in the deed of conveyance. Provision is made 
that, where the growth of towns, the building of railroads, the 
development of water powers, or other improvements may 
demand the alienation of the land by the state, the forestry board 
may sell the same and divide the proceeds as directed for the 
income. Otherwise the land is to be held in perpetuity for for- 
estry purposes. 

It was thought that under the terms of this act a large amount 
of waste land would be donated, but the unprecedented land 
boom of the last two years has led to some disappointment in this 
regard. 

An Act for the Prevention and Suppression of Forest 
Fires in Minnesota. This act, which was passed by the 
legislature of Minnesota in 1895, makes a systematic division of 
the state in such a way that every section of it is in charge of a 
forest fire warden. It provides for the appointment of a chief 
fire warden, who shall have supervision of all fire wardens. 
Supervisors of towns, mayors of cities and presidents of village 
councils are constituted fire wardens in their respective towns, 
cities and villages. The chief fire warden has power to appoint 
as fire wardens other persons, as he may deem necessary, to pro- 
tect unorganized territory. One-third of the expense is borne by 
the state and two-thirds by the counties. Under this act penal- 
ties are prescribed as follows: 

The following are liable to a penalty not exceeding $100, or 
imprisonment not exceeding three years: 

Any person refusing, without sufficient cause, to assist fire 
wardens in extinguishing forest or prairie fires. 

Any fire warden who neglects to perform his duties. 

Any person who willfully, negligently or carelessly sets on 
fire, or causes to be set on fire, any woods, prairies or other 
combustible material, thereby causing injury to another. 
13 



194 ELEMENTARY FORESTRY. 

Any person who shall kindle a fire on or dangerously near to 
forest or prairie land, and leave it unquenched, or who shall be a 
party thereto. 

Any person who shall use other than incombustible fire wads 
for firearms, or carry a naked torch, firebrand, or other exposed 
light, in or dangerously near to forest land. 

Any person who shall willfully or heedlessly deface, destroy 
or remove any warning placard posted under the requirements of 
this act. 

Any railroad company willfully neglecting to provide effi- 
cient spark arresters on its engines, or to keep its right of way 
to the width of loo feet cleared of combustible material, or which 
shall fail to comply with other provisions of section 12 of the 
above mentioned act. 

The following are liable to a penalty of not less than $5.00 
nor more than $50.00: 

Any railroad employe who willfully violates the provisions 
of section 12 of this act, in regard to depositing live coals or hot 
ashes near woodland, and to reporting fires. 

Any owner of threshing or other portable steam engine who 
neglects to have efficient spark arresters, or who shall deposit 
live coals or hot ashes without extinguishing the same. 

The following are liable to a penalty not exceeding $500, or 
imprisonment in the state prison not over ten years, or both: 

Any person who maliciously sets or causes to be set on fire 
any woods, prairie or other combustible material whereby the 
property of another is destroyed and life sacrificed. 

The effect of this law has been very beneficial, and has pre- 
vented much loss of property by fire; but the area to be covered 
is very large, much of it is very sparsely populated, and the funds 
available are very meager for best results, so that, although it 
has been very ably enforced, and some convictions made under 
it, yet it should be amended in several respects to make it effec- 
tive. 

State Bounty for Tree Planting. It is provided by the 
laws of the State of Minnesota that any person who shall plant, 
cultivate and keep in a growing, thrifty condition one acre and 



FOREST FIRE LAW. 195 

not more than ten acres of prairie land with any kind of forest 
trees except Black Locust, to be planted not more than eight 
feet apart each way, and maintained at that distance by replant- 
ing each year such as may have died out, shall be entitled to $2.50 
per acre for a period of six years. Provided that not more than 
$20,000 shall be expended in any one year for this purpose. 

This law has no doubt been productive of much good in 
encouraging the planting of forest trees on the prairies. 



PART II. 

TREES OF MINNESOTA 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



PINACEAE. PINE FAMILY. 

Trees or shrubs with resinous juice. Leaves commonly 
needle-shaped or awl-shaped, and mostly evergreen. Flowers 
monoecious or sometimes dioecious, in catkins or cones, destitute 
of calyx and corolla. The pollen grains have lateral air sacs 
which buoy them up in the air. and they are occasionally carried 
hundreds of miles by the wind. Fruit cither a woody cone with 
distinct scales, as in the pines, spruces, Arborvitse and Larch, or 
a somewhat berry-like cone with fleshy coherent scales, as in the 
Red Cedar. 

Genus PINUS. 

Leaves of two kinds; the primary ones, linear or scale like, 
deciduous; the secondary forming the ordinary foliage ever- 
green, from slender buds, in clusters of two, three or five 
together, each cluster surrounded by a sheath of thin mem- 
branous scales. Flowers appear in the spring, monoecious; the 
staminate in scaly catkins clustered at the base of the new 
growth; the pistillate in scaly catkins borne on the twigs of the 
preceding season, becoming scaly cones at maturity. Each scale 
is in the axil of a bract, and bears a pair of ovules adhering to 
its inner face, which peel ofif as the scale expands at matur- 
ity. Fruit a woody cone, maturing in the autumn of the second 
year. Cotyledons three to twelve, linear. We have only three 
native species in this state. 

Pinus Strobus. White Pine. Weymouth Pine. 

Leaves soft, in clusters of five, about three to four inches long, 
falling at the end of the second or during the third season; sheath 



200 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate I. Pinus strohus. White Pine. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. An- 
ther, side view, enlarged. 4 and 5. Scales of pistillate flower, side and top 
views, enlarged. 6. Auti:mn branch bearing young cones, one-half natural 
size. 7. Fruiting branch bearing open cone, one-half natural size. 8. 
Scale of cone with seeds attached, one-half natural size. 9. Seeds with 
wings attached, one-half natural size. 10. Seeds, enlarged. 11. Seedling 
plant. 



PINE. 201 

early deciduous. Sterile catkins five or six together. Cones soli- 
tary, four to six inches long, slender, cylindrical, terminal, pendu- 
lous, falling after shedding their seeds; scales thin and pointless, 
seeds nearly one-quarter of an inch long with eight to ten coty- 
ledons. A magnificent tree, and the tallest one of the Eastern 
States. In good locations in this state it sometimes attains a 
height of over 160 feet and a diameter of four feet. One acre 
was scaled near Carlton, Minn., which yielded over 94,000 feet 
board measure of sound timber. The White Pine is generally 
found in this section on rather clayey land. On poor land the 
Norway and Jack Pine generally crowd it out. 

Distribution. — Canada and the Northeastern States and south- 
ward along the Alleghanies to Georgia, the valley of the St. Law- 
rence and around the Great Lakes. In Minnesota it is common 
through the northern half of the state, excepting west of Red 
Lake, and south to the northern edge of Chisago county. It is 
found occasionally south of this limit, as at St. Cloud, Taylors 
Falls, Cannon River, Mantorvillc, Rochester, St. Charles, and at 
various points in Houston and Fillmore counties. In the western 
and southwestern portions of the state it is not found. 

Propagation. — By seeds, as recommended for evergreens. The 
young seedlings will not bear as much sunlight as the Norway, 
Jack or the Bull Pine, and will bear considerable shade. 

Properties of JVood. — Very soft, light, weak, compact, straight 
grained, very resinous, easily worked, of a delicate pinkish brown 
color, with lighter colored sapwood. One of its points of con- 
siderable value is the small degree to which it shrinks and swells 
owing to change in the atmosphere. Not durable in contact with 
the soil, although the heartwood stands fairly well. Specific 
gravity, 0.3854; weight of a cubic foot, 24.02 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Pine is one of the fastest growing and per- 
haps the most graceful of evergreens for ornamental planting. 
It grows rapidly when in retentive soil of a loose open texture, 
but is liable to kill out in wet, compact or very sandy soils. It 
should not be planted in very exposed situations, but should fol- 
low the planting of the more hardy deciduous trees in such 
places; it is liable to be killed by drying winds in the early spring 
on our Western prairies. It is not as hardy as the Scotch Pine, 
nor will it make as fast a growth when young, but is longer lived 



202 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

than the Scotch Pine, and in fifteen years will make a much 
larger and more ornamental tree. Within and near its range it 
is very valuable for ornamental purposes. 

The White Pine yields the most useful timber of the American 
forests, it being especially valuable for sash, doors, blinds, shin- 
gles, etc., and for a general-purpose timber in building and wood- 
working. It is largely used in cooperage, railroad ties, pulp, 
matches and excelsior making. From the bark is obtained the 
compound syrup of White Pine now largely used in the United 
States as an expectorant. 

Pinus flexilis. IVimber Pine. Western White Fine 

Leaves five in a sheath, somewhat rigid, sharp pointed and 
densely crowded on the branchlets, falling during fifth and sixth 
years. Cones cylindrical, tapermg, three to five inclies long, 
light brown; scales thick, one and one-quarter inches broad; 
seeds one-third to one-half inch long, with six to nine cotyledons. 
A handsome tree, about fifty feet high, resembling the common 
White Pine, but of closer, stififer habit and darker foliage. 

Distribution. — Mountain ranges from Alberta to Western 
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, close grained, compact; color, 
light clear yellow, turning red on exposure; sapwood nearly 
white. Specific gravity, 0.4358; weight of a cubic foot, 27.16 
pounds. 

Uses. — The Western White Pine is a handsome tree that is lit- 
tle known in cultivation, but promises to be of some value for 
ornamental planting, and is doing very well at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station, where it has been growing nine years. 

Pinus resinosa. Red Pine. Norway Pine. 

Leaves five to six inches long, nearly cylindrical; in pairs from 
long close sheaths, falling during fourth and fifth seasons. Cone 
ovoid conical, with rounded base, about two inches long, falling 
after shedding the seeds; scales of cone slightly thickened at the 
end without any prickly points; seeds one-eighth of an inch long, 
with from six to eight cotyledons. A very handsome, rapid- 
growing, robust tree, with a straight, uniform trunk covered with 



PINE. 



203 




Plate 2. Piiius resinosa. Red Pine. 

I. Branch bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate 
flower, natural size. 3. Pistillate flower, natural size. 4. Anther, open, en- 
larged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Branch bearing ripened 
cones and young cones. 7. Scale of cone with seeds attached, one-half 
natural size. 8. Cross section of nredle. 9. Seedling plant, one-half nat- 
ural size. 



204 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

a pretty reddish gray, soft, flaky bark; commonly grows about 
eighty feet in height and two feet in diameter, but occasionally 
reaches a height of 150 feet. Wrongly called Norway Pine, for 
this species is not found in Norway or any other part of Europe. 

Distribution.— 'Found in northern United States and Canada, 
southward as far as Pennsylvania, but reaches its greatest develop- 
ment in the northern part of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota, where it forms large forests even on sandy or dry soil, often 
interspersed with Jack Pine when young. In Minnesota its 
range is about the same as that of White Pine, but does not 
extend as far south. 

Propagation. — By seeds, as recommended for evergreens. The 
seeds of this pine are very scarce, and difficult to obtain on 
account of the few produced in the cones and the ravages of the 
squirrels. These animals are so fond of the seeds that they often 
cut into the cones before the seeds are mature and take the larger 
part. 

Propagation. — By seeds, as recommended for evergreens. The 
seeds of this pine are very scarce, and difificult to obtain on 
crack in drying; yellowish white sapwood and reddish heart- 
wood, conspicuously grained; not durable in contact with the 
ground. Specific gravity, 0.4854; weight of a cubic foot, 30.25 
pounds. 

Uses. — As an ornamental tree and for windbreaks the Red 
Pine will stand much more hard usage than the White Pine, 
especially on light soil. It has a robust, vigorous appearance, 
and would undoubtedly be more commonly planted if young 
plants of it could be more cheaply obtained. Within and near its 
range it makes a very fine ornamental tree, and is very valuable 
for windbreaks. The principal value of this timber is for fram- 
ing, flooring, wainscoting, car sills and ship building. In many 
ways it is used to take the place of White Pine. In fact. Red 
Pine, while inferior for general use, is frequently mixed with 
White Pine in lumber yards. While its specific name, resinosa, 
would seem to infer the presence of a large amount of resin in 
this tree, it in fact contains comparatively little, and is seldom 
used for the purpose of obtaining resin. 



PINE. 205 

Pinus divaricata. (P. Imnksiana ) Jack Pine. Nor- 
thern Scrub Pine. Gray Pine. 

Leaves in twos, short, from three-quarters to one and one- 
half inches long, acute, rigid, thick, more or less curved and 
twisted, falling the second or third season; inner side channeled; 
margins very minutely serrate, sheaths short: buds very resinous. 
Cones ovoid acuminate, about two inches long, often curved, 
laterally located on branchlets, often in pairs. They are gen- 
erally opened by the sun, but where they are in the shade they 
will remain on the trees unopened for several years until they 
become deeply covered with moss and sometimes until over- 
grown and imbedded in the wood and bark. The seeds are 
about one-eighth of an inch long, with four to five cotyledbns. 
Those from the old cones seem to grow as readily as fresh seeds 
when sown. A very pronounced peculiarity of this tree is its 
habit of forming several whorls of branches on the new growth. 
This is especially noticeable when the trees are young and grow- 
ing rapidly, when as many as six whorls of branches may be seen 
on a year's growth. This tree, under favorable conditions, will 
occasionally attain a height of 125 feet and a diameter of two 
feet. However it is seldom over seventy feet high and eight to 
twelve inches in diameter, and generally where it occurs in pine 
forests it is only forty or fifty feet high. 

Distribution. — It is distributed from northern New England 
and the valley of the St. Lawrence westward along our northern 
frontier to the Rocky Mountains and north to the Arctic circle; 
found growing in sandy land and land that has been recently 
severely burned. It covers large areas of poor, sandy lands in 
Minnesota. In this state it probably has about the same range 
as Norway Fine. 

Propagation. — By seeds. The cones may be obtained at any 
season of the year and kept out of doors until spring, when they 
can be opened by the application of a little heat. The seeds from 
the old cones seem to have as much vitality as those from young 
cones. In the woods the cones of Jack Pine often remain closed 
until a fire sweeping over the land causes them to open, and 
allows the seeds to fall in the loose ashes, where they soon start 
into growth. On account of this peculiarity it is sometimes 
called the Fire Pine. The seedlings are very hardy, and grow 



206 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 3. Piuus divaricata. Jack Pine. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, cne-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, nat 
ural size. 4. Anther, open, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, en 
larged. 6. Branch bearing ripened cones and young cones, one-half nat 
ural size. 7. Scale of cone with seeds attached, one-half natural size 
8. Fascicle of needles, one-half natural size. 9. Cross section of needle, 

10. New growth showing several whorls of branches, one-half natural size 

11. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



PINE. 207 

without shade. It is one of the first evergreens to start on the 
abandoned dry pine land in some sections of this state. 

Properties of V/ood. — Light, soft, not strong, resinous; light 
yellowish brown in color with thick whitish sapwood. Specific 
gravity, 0.4761: weight of a cubic foot, 29.67 pounds. 

Uses.—'Vhe Jack Pine is not a pretty tree, and is seldom used 
in ornamental planting. It is, however, the hardiest native ever- 
green tree we have and is especially adapted to dry, loose soil, 
where it has a wondrous power of withstanding drouth. It is of 
rapid growth when young, which, together with its great hardi- 
ness, has led to its being planted on some of the sandiest dry 
lands of the West. In the timbered portion of Minnesota it often 
acts as a nurse tree for the Red Pine, but too often is liable to 
crowd it out. The larger trees are generally sawed into lumber 
and pass as Red Pine, but they seldom attain a size large enough 
to be profitably used for this purpose, but much of it is used for 
fencing, farm buildings, railroad ties and as fuel. 

Pinus ponderosa scopulorum. Rock Pine. Bull Pine. 
Heavy-wooded Pine. Western Yellow Pine. 

Leaves three to six inches long, rigid, generally in threes, 
but occasionally in twos, falling during third and fourth seasons. 
Cones two to three inches long, grayish, with stout prickles. 
Tree 80 to 100 feet high. The species, Pinus ponderosa, of which 
this is an important variety, is the most magnificent and widely 
spread of Western Pines, attaining a height of 200 to 300 feet 
and a thickness gf twelve to fifteen feet, and having much large- 
cones and longer needles than this variety. 

Distribution. — The Rock Pine is found throughout the Rocky 
Mountain region. It inhabits even the dry sand hills of West- 
ern Nebraska and Montana, and is perhaps the hardiest Western 
Pine. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which are large, easily obtained, and 
grow with the greatest certainty if given ordinary treatment. 

Properties of Wood. — The wood varies greatly in quality and 
value. It is heavy, hard, strong, brittle and compact, neither 
coarse grained nor durable; color, light red, with very thick 
light colored sapwood. Specific gravity, 0.4619; weight of a 
cubic foot, 28.78 pounds. 



208 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 4. Phnis ponderosa scopulorum. Rock Pine. 

I. End of branch bearing staminate flower, enlarged. 2. End of branch 
bearing pistillate flower, enlarged. 3. Anther, open. 4. Scale of pistillate 
flower attached to bract, front view, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower 
attached to bract, rear view, enlarged. 6. Cone, one-half natural size. 
7. Scale of cone, rear view, one-half natural size. 8. Seed attached to wing. 
9. Branch showing young growth, one-half natural size. 10. Fascicle of 
three needles, one-half natural size. 11. Fascicle of two needles, one-half 
natural size. 12. Cross section of needle from three-leaf fascicle. 13. Seed- 
ling, one-half natural size. 



PINE. 209 

Uses. — The Rock Pine has the power of withstanding great 
extremes of drouth and temperature, and promises to be of great 
value for planting on our Western plains. It is of rapid growth, 
and while it has a somewhat coarse appearance its sturdy form is 
far from being unsightly. It is perhaps rather more difficult to 
transplant than the Scotch Pine, probably on account of its deep 
tap root when young. The wood is largely manufactured into 
lumber, and used for railway ties, fuel, etc. 

Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. Scotch Fir. Deal Wood. 

Leaves two in a sheath, one and one-half to two inches long, 
and of a glaucous hue, falling during third season; sheaths small, 
persistent, nearly black. Cones about two inches long, tapering 
towards the apex, solitary or in clusters of two or three; scales 
of cones tipped with a deciduous point. Trees rather inclined 
to grow crooked, and to not keep a straight shaft as in the case 
of the Norway and Austrian Pines. In this region where it is 
cultivated it seldom grows over ten inches in diameter, and forms 
round topped trees spreading twenty-five to thirty feet. There 
are several cultivated varieties, the most of which are of little 
value. 

Distribution. — It is the common timber pine of northern 
Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds if properly managed, 
but requires shade when very small. Most of the seeds of this 
pine that are commonly sold are gathered in Europe from a 
dwarf scrubby form that is found on dry poor land. There are 
probably very few seeds sold from the large timber trees, as they 
are most cheaply gathered from the dwarf form. This may be a 
reason why the tree is generally so dwarf with us, although it 
varies much in size when grown in difTercnt soils. 

Properties of Wood. — Yellowish white, soft, light, close grained 
and easily worked. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.52. 

Uses. — The Scotch Pine is one of the hardiest of evergreens, 
of very rapid close growth when young, but often rather open in 
habit when old. It generally reaches its maturity when about 
twenty years old, and seldom lasts much longer when on dry 
soil. It has been planted more largely than any other evergreen 
on our prairies, and perhaps is as good as any for pioneer plant- 
ings. 
14 



210 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 5. .Pinus sylvestris. Scotch Pine. 

I Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural sire. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers after pollination, one-half natural size. 4. Un- 
opened pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, rear view, 
enlarged. 6. Scale of pistillate flower, front view, enlarged. 7. Anther, en- 
larged. 8. Branch bearing ripe cone and young cone, one-half natural size. 
9. An open cone, one-half natural size. 10. Scale of cone, one-half natural 
size. It. Seeds with wings attached. 12. Seed, natural size. 13. Seedling, 
one-half natural size. 



PINE. 211 

The wood of this tree is valuable for interior finishing, and is 
largely used in Europe, where it is the common timber pine. 
The celebrated pine of Norway and the Baltic countries is of th-s 
species. What has been termed the best form of this, and known 
as Riga Pine, has been partially tried in this country, but thus far 
its superiority has not been demonstrated. 

"This pine yields a considerable portion of the common 
European turpentine. In Germany a fibrous substance is pre- 
pared from the leaves of this and other species of Pinus and 
Abies, called fir-wool, and a volatile oil is distilled from them 
called fir-wool oil, which is considerably used as a remedy for 
rheumatism, chronic catarrh, chronic skin diseases, etc.; in fact, 
generally for the same purposes as the oil of turpentine. The 
leaves are made into wadding and clothing (designated as fir- 
wool from their origin), which are supposed to have some merit 
in the treatment of rheumatic affections." 

Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. Black I'ine. 

Leaves two in a sheath, dark green, slender but rigid, four to 
six inches long, falling during fourth and fifth seasons. Cones 
two and one-half to three inches long, conical, not beaked. Tree 
much more regular in outline than the Scotch Pine, the branches 
coming out in a very regular, candelabra-like fashion. There 
are a few cultivated varieties. 

Distribution. — Native of southern and central Europe. 

Propagation. — By seeds, seedlings require shading when 
young. 

Properties of JVood. — Light, soft, dural)lc, very rich in turp'en- 
tine. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.57. 

Uses. — The Austrian Pine is very desirable for planting in 
this section, rather longer lived and perhaps hardier than the 
Scotch Pine, and of a much darker color, resembling most 
closely the Norway Pine. 

Pinus montana pumila. (P. /nn,i,'-////s.) Dwarf Pine. 
Dwarf Mountain Pine. 

- Leaves dark green, crowded, stiff, twisted, about two inches 
long, falling during fifth, sixth and seventh years. Cones usually 
in pairs, nearly two inches long, tapering, with slight points to 



212 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



\^Jm^eL^ 




Plate 6. Pinus laricio austriaca. Austrian Pine. 

I.' Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers and young cones, one-half natural size. 3. End 
of branch bearing bud and young cone, one-half natural size. 4. Pistillate 
flower, natural size. 5. Anther, enlarged. 6 and 7. Scales of pistillate 
flower, front and rear views, enlarged. 8. Open cone, one-half natural 
size. 9. Scale of cone, one-half natural size. 10. Seeds with wings at- 
tached, one-half natural size. 11. Seed, natural size. 12. Seedling, one- 
half natural size. 13. Cross section of needle. 



PINE. 213 

the scales. A densely branched shrub, or possibly a small tree, 
two to ten feet high. 

Distribution. — Mountains of central Europe. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds. 

Uses. — The Dwarf Pine is one of the hardiest of Pines. It is 
of pretty, close shrubby form and takes kindly to pruning, which 
often greatly improves it. The plants ^rom seed vary quite a 
little in habit, some being dwarf and spreading while others are 




Figure 4S. Pinus montana pumila. Dwarf Pine. 

quite erect and tree-like. It is valuable for single specimens 
in lawn planting, for the edges of evergreen groups and for low 
hedges. 

Genus I^ARIX. 

A genus of large, deciduous, cone-bearing trees. Leaves 
needle-shaped, soft, deciduous, clustered, except on young shoots, 
where they are spirally arranged; leaf clusters developed in early 
spring from lateral, scaly, globular buds, which are scattered 
along the shoots of the season. 

Propagation. — The seeds germinate readily in moist sandy soil, 
and the seedlings are easily raised in the manner described for 
evergreens. They should be transplanted very early in the 
spring, and if this is done at the right time the seedlings will 
start readily, but if moved after the plants have started they are 
very likely to fail. 



214 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

I/arix laricina. [L. a me >■ nam).) Tamarack. American 
Larch. Hackmatack. 

Leaves one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, slender 
and thread-like, light bluish green, deciduous. Cones one-half 
to one inch long, ovoid. A slender, graceful tree, thirty to one 
hundred feet high, with close or at length sightly scaly bark. 

Distribution. — Northeastern United States, north of Pennsyl- 
vania, nearly or quite to the Arctic regions and west nearly to 
Central Minnesota; rare farther south than Ramsey and Henne- 
pin counties in Minnesota. It covers vast areas of swamp land 
in the northern part of this state with a short stunted growth. 
It fails to reach large size in very wet land, while on land that 
is not excessively wet it grows lOO feet high and sixteen inches 
through at the stump. In one instance a stunted Tamarack, 
growing on excessively wet land, had been forty-eight years in 
attaining a diameter of one and one-tenth inches, while on land 
well adapted to it a tree had grown to the height of forty-four 
and one-quarter feet, with a diameter of eleven inches in thirty- 
eight years. 

Properties of Wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse 
grained, compact, durable in contact with the soil; color light 
brown; sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity, 0.6236; weight 
of a cubic foot, 38.86 pounds. 

Uses.- — The Tamarack may occasionally be used for variety in 
lawn planting on moist soil, and is well adapted to planting along 
lake shores and around sloughs; but on dry soil it is of little 
value, and we have many far more valuable trees for moist soils. 
The lumber is largely used in ship building, canoe making, for 
fence posts, telegraph poles, railway ties, etc. The inner bark 
of European Larch is used in medicine, and it is probable that 
the bark of our American species has similar medicmal proper- 
ties. Two varieties varying in color of heartwood, the red and 
the white Tamarack, are commonly distinguished. The dififer- 
ence is probably one of age only. The red hearted trees, having 
the more heartwood, make the more durable lumber. This tree 
grows fast, and readily renews itself from seed. For these rea- 
sons, good Tamarack swamps, properly managed, should prove 
profitable investments. 



LARCH. 



215 




Plate 7. Larix europca. European Larch. 

I. Branch-bearing staminate and pistillate flowers and a mature cone, 
one-half natural size. 2. Anther, enlarged. 3. Scale of pistillate flower, 
enlarged. 4. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. 5. Seed, 
natural size. 6. Scale of cone, one-half natural size. 7. Branches showing 
arrangement of leaves on new and old growth. 8. Branch showing tip of 
new growth in spring. 9. A leaf from fascicle on old growth. 10. A leaf 
from new growth. 11. Winter branch showing persistent cone. 12. Seed- 
ling. 



210 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

I^arix europea. European Larch. 

Leaves longer than those of the Taraaracl^', and of a brighter 
green color. Cones longer than those of the Tamarack. A 
large and important timber tree. 

Distribution. — Native of northern and central Europe, on moist 
mountain sides. 

Properties of Wood. — Hard, strong, tough, very durable in 
contact with the soil. Specific gravity, 0.62. 

Uses. — The European Larch has been largely planted in the 
Eastern States in small timber plantations, for vi^indbreaks and 
ornament. It is superior to our native Larch for these purposes, 
but has not succeeded well on our Western prairies, probably on 
account of the dry climate. On moist soil in somewhat sheltered 
locations it often does well, and becomes a graceful, pretty tree. 
Very large and successful plantations of this tree have been 
made in Scotland and other European countries, but in some 
parts of Germany the Japanese Larch is preferred, as it is not so 
much infested with insects. The lumber is used for posts, tele- 
graph poles, piles, beams and joists and in ship building. The 
bark is used in tanning leather. One tree, grown at Owatonna, 
Minnesota, attained a height of about fifty feet and a diameter 
of fifteen inches in thirty years, but so rapid a growth is uncom- 
mon here. 

Genus PIC^A. 

Leaves evergreen, scattered, not grouped in sheaths, jointed 
on a persistent base, needle shaped, generally four-angled, short, 
pointing every way, and all of one kind. Flowers appear, in 
spring, monoecious; the staminate catkins in the axils of the 
leaves of the preceding year; the pistillate catkins terminal ovoid 
or oblong. Fruit a cone, maturing the first year, pendulous with 
thin tough scales that open when ripe and dry, to liberate the 
two, winged seeds, found at the base of each scale. Trees tall 
and pyramidal or conical in form. 

Picea canadensis. (/■. a/ba.) White Spruce. 

Leaves slender, one-half to one inch long, varying in color 
from light glaucous to dark green, falling during fourth and fifth 
seasons. Cones oblong, one to two inches in length, deciduous 



SPRUCE. 



21< 




Plate 8. Picea canadensis. White Spruce. 

I. Branch beaririR staminate flower, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flower, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, side view, en- 
larged. 4. Pollen grain, showing air sacs, enlarged. 5. Branch bearing 
ripened cones, one-half natural .<;ize. 6. Scale of cone with seeds attached, 
natural size. 7. Scale of cone, rear view, natural size. 8. Cross section of 
needle, enlarged. 9. General view of tree. 



218 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

in autumn or winter of first year; scales thin, with entire mar- 
gins, not rigid; seeds small, with thin wings. A graceful tree 
of pyramidal habit and horizontal branches, sometimes attaining 
a height of over lOO feet, with a diameter of two feet. There are 
several varieties of value for ornamental planting. 

Distribution.— In the United States it is found in Northern 
Maine and westward in certain localities to Montana. It is also 
found in Newfoundland and Labrador, westward to the Rocky 
Mountains and north to Alaska. It reaches its best development 
growing in moist soil. It is found more or less throughout 
Northeastern Minnesota, but is especially abundant near the 
northern boundary. 

Propagation. — The species is grown from seeds and the varie- 
ties by grafting. The seeds of the White Spruce are often in- 
fested by a weevil, which fact, together with their small size and 
the difficulty in gathering them, makes them high in price and 
often difficult to obtain. On account of the ease with which Nor- 
way Spruce seeds are obtained they are preferably sold by nur- 
serymen. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, compact, straight grained, of 
only moderate strength, nearly odorless; color, light yellow; 
sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity, 0.4051; weight 
of a cubic foot, 25.25 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Spruce is one of the best evergreens for 
planting in this section, generally rather slow in growth, but 
forming pretty conical trees. The wood is largely used for gen- 
eral construction, spars, canoe and boat building, oars, paddles, 
tripods, step ladders, baseball bats, flooring, sounding boards for 
musical instruments, paper pulp, nail kegs, casks, lime and 
cement barrels, butter tubs and pails, excelsior and charcoal. It 
is not distinguished from Black Spruce in commerce. Spruce 
chewing gum is, in part, the product of this tree. 

Picea tnariana. (/'. ni^ra.) Black Spruce. Double 
Spruce. 

Leaves deep green, short, about one-half inch in length, scat- 
tered thickly over the branches, falling during the fourth and 
fifth seasons. Cones ovoid, oblong, one to one and three-quar- 
ter inches long, persistent; scales very thin, rigid, with an 



SPRUCE. 



219 







Plate 9. Picea mariana. Black Spruce. 
J Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size 3.. A"*'^"' /"'^''^.^'^Lnt 
Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 5- Branch bearing ripened cones one- 
haM natural size. 6. Seeds, enlarged 7. Scale, front view, nat"r^ /"• 
8. Scale, rear view, natural size. 9- General view of tree as found in the 
muskegs of northern Minnesota. 



220 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

uneven margin; seeds small, with rigid wings. In Maine and 
elsewhere a large tree, forming valuable forests. In this section 
occasionally a large tree, but generally small, and seldom cut for 
timber. 

Distribution. — Northern United States, Canada and northward, 
forming large forests in some sections. In Minnesota it is found 
in the White Pine belt, though most common in the extreme 
northern portions. Generally found in swamps known as mus- 
kegs, on which the trees, with their roots half submerged, make 
a very slow growth. One specimen, the rings of which showed 
it to be seventy-three years old, was only one and one-eighth 
inches in diameter. 

Propagation. — By seeds. When plants are desired they may 
be easily gathered from the woods in this state. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, strong, compact and satiny; 
color, reddish with nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity, 
0.458; weight of a cubic foot, 28.57 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Spruce is a poor ornamental tree, as it soon 
loses its lower branches, which with its dead persistent cones 
and dark-colored bark makes it appear unsightly. It is also a 
short-lived tree on dry land in this section. Most of the Christ- 
mas trees in our market of recent years have been of this kind, 
although the Balsam Fir is also used. The wood is used here to 
some extent and elsewhere in large quantities for paper pulp, for 
which purpose it is highly esteemed. In the eastern range of this 
tree its wood is largely used for flooring, masts, spars, general 
house and ship building, sounding boards for instruments, and 
for any other purpose where a light, stifif wood is needed. The 
gum which this tree exudes is valued as chewing gum, and the 
gathering of it is quite an industry in some sections. The 
essence of spruce is made by boiling the young branches in water 
and evaporating the decoction. It is used in the manufacture of 
spruce beer, which is a pleasant and wholesome beverage, and 
it is sometimes useful on long sea voyages as a preventive of 
scurvy. 



SPRUCE. 221 

Picea parryana. (P. f'un^'ois.) Colorado Blue Spruce. 

Silver Spruce. White Spruce. Blue Spruce. 

Leaves about one inch long, rather 1)roa(l. rigid, stout, 
pointed, usually incurved, falling during sixth and seventh years; 
hranchlets smooth and shining. Cones light brown in color, 
very prickly, three to five inches long, cylindrical, with more or 
less elongated th-'n truncate wavy scales; seeds small but larger 
than those of P. cngchuaiiui. A large tree, of strictly conical 
growth and spreading branches. The seedlings vary greatly in 
color, from a bright glaucous blue to dark green. The form hav- 
ing light colored foliage has become known as Picca pungens 
glauca. 

Distribution. — Valley of the Wind river south through the 
mountain ranges of Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. 

Propagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by graft- 
ing on the same or other species. 

Properties of Wood. — Soft, weak, light, close grained, satiny; 
color, very li.ght brown, or often nearly white; sapwood hardly 
distinguishable. Specific gravity. 0.374; weight of a cubic foot, 
23.3 pounds. 

Uses. — The Colorado Blue vSpruce is a handsome ornamental 
tree that is now very popular with tree planters in this section 
and elsewhere in the Northern States. It is very ornamental 
when young, but its later development is often not so pretty, 
and if not growing rapidly when older it has a rather ragged 
appearance: of slower growth than the white or Norway Spruce, 
very hardy and well worthy of trial in a small way. The wood is 
used within its range for fuel and timber, although it is nowhere 
very abundant. A hedge of this tree may be grown so close that 
even a dog cannot get through, as the sharp-pointed leaves are 
exceedingly pungent. 

Picea engelmanni. l^ngelmann Spruce. Mountain 
Spruce. White .Spruce. 

Leaves three-quarters to one inch long, pointed, but not as 
prickly as P. parrayana ; branchlets pubescent. Cones solitary, 
one and one-half to two inches long; scales rhombic, the upper 
ends appearing as though broken off; seeds smaller than those of 
P. parrayana. In form and color of foliage this species resembles 



222 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

P. parrayana, but makes a larger tree, often growing loo feet in 
height. In some nurseries it is customary to tell the Colorado Blue 
Spruce from the Engelmann Spruce by grasping the top of the 
young tree with the hand, when, if it pricks only a little, the tree 
is set down as Engelmann Spruce, while if the pricking is unen- 
durable, it is called Colorado Blue Spruce. This method of 
determining the species generally gives correct results, but a 
certain way is to examine the bark of the new growth between 
the needles which, if slightly downy, indicates the Engelmann 
Spruce, and if smooth and shining, the Colorado Blue Spruce. 

Distribution. — Northern New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, 
northward to British Columbia, in the mountains at high eleva- 
tions. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of Wood. — Very light, soft, weak, very close straight 
grained, compact, satiny; color, pale yellow, tinged with red; 
sapwood hardly distinguishable. Specific gravity, 0.3449; weight 
of a cubic foot, 21.49 pounds. 

Uses.— The Engelmann Spruce is a valuable ornamental and 
timber tree, resembling the Blue Spruce, but it has been tried to 
only a limited extent. It is the most valuable timber tree of the 
central Rocky Mountain region, where it forms extensive for- 
ests. In Colorado it is manufactured into lumber, and is largely 
used for fuel, charcoal, etc. The bark is rich in tannin, and in 
Utah is sometimes used for tanning leather. 

Picea excelsa. Norway Spruce. 

Leaves long, deep green in color, falling during the fifth sea- 
son. Cones cylindrical, large, five to seven inches long, light 
colored, often very conspicuous in the tops of the trees. A fine, 
large conical tree, with stout branches and generally pendulous 
branchlets. There are numerous horticultural varieties, some of 
the dwarf forms growing only three to five feet high. 

Distribution. — Native of Northern Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds, which are used in 
large quantities. The varieties are propagated by grafting on 
the species. 

Properties of Ji'ood. — Light, strong aiid fine grained. Specific 
gravity, air dried, 0.47. 



SPRUCE. 



223 




Plate 10. Picea excclsa. Norway Spruce. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flower, one-half natural size. 3. Winter branch, showing 
buds, one-half natural size. 4. Scale of pistillate flower, front view, en- 
larged. 5. Scale of pistillate flower, rear view, enlarged. 6. Scale of pis- 
tillate flower, side view, enlarged. 7. Bract of pistillate flower, enlarged. 
8. Anther, side view, enlarged. 9. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 
10. Scale of cone with sjeds attached, one-half natural size. 11. Seeds \vith 
wings attached. 12. Seed, natural size. 13. Seedling, one-half natural size. 
14. General view of tree showing drooping branches and pyramidal form. 



224 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Uses. — The Norwaj' Spruce has been largely planted in the 
more Eastern States, and is a general favorite, as it grows more 
rapidly than any of our native spruces and is very graceful and 
stately in form. There are many plantings of this tree in Minne- 
sota, and they are holding on well; yet the White Spruce is a 
safer tree for general planting, and generally grows nearly as 
fast. Since it is more difficult to obtain the seed of the White 
Spruce, it is probable that the Norway Spruce will continue to 
be planted. The wood of Norway Spruce is much used in 
Europe, and is largely grown there for paper pulp, fuel and tim- 
ber. The young branches are used in making the essence of 
spruce, as described under. Black Spruce. The bark is used to a 
considerable extent in Europe for tanning purposes. 

Genus TSUGA. 
A genus of but a single species in our section. 

Tsuga canadensis. Hemlock. 

Leaves linear, flat, one-half inch long, obtuse, whitened beneath, 
short petioled and diverging from the sides of the branchlet so 
as to make it appear flattened, falling during second and third 
years. Cones small, scarcely longer than the leaves, pendent 
from the tips of the branches of the preceding year, persistent, 
with inconspicuous bracts; seeds quite small, with thin wings, 
maturing the first year. A large, graceful tree. There are sev- 
eral horticultural varieties in cultivation. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south as 
far as Delaware and along the mountains to Alabama. Scarcely 
found in Minnesota, though common near its eastern borders, in 
Wisconsin. A few specimens are said to have been found near 
Cloquet, and perhaps occasionally elsewhere near the eastern 
boundary. 

Propagation.- — The species by seeds and the varieties by graft- 
ing on the species. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, brittle, coarse grained and 
not very easily worked; color, very light red or brown, with still 
lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity, 0.4239; weight of a 
cubic foot, 26.42 pounds. 



DOUGLAS SPRUCE. 225 

i'scs. — The Hemlock is unsafe for general planting in this 
section, as it is very liable to injury from cold winds and drouth, 
but in extreme Eastern Minnesota, on moist soil and in pro- 
tected locations, it has proved desirable for ornamental planting. 
The wood of the Hemlock is used for framing and general con- 
struction purposes where fine finish is not needed, wood work, 
furniture, picture moldings, ties, fencing and charcoal. It is 
loose, and warps badly when exposed to the air, but stands fairly 
well in contact with the ground. The bark is used in immense 
quantities for tanning" leather, and is largely Obtained for this 
purpose in Wisconsin. 

Genus PSEUDOTSUGA. 

A genus of a single species midway between the firs and hem- 
lock. Leaves somewhat two-ranked by a twist at the base. 
Cones upright, maturing the first season. 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia. (P. doi(,ifhtsii.) Douglas Spruce. 

Red Fir. Douglas ¥\r. 

Leaves linear, distinctly petioled, mostly blunt or rounded, 
nearly an inch long on old trees, but a little longer on young 
thrifty trees, falling during fifth season; in color generally a rich 
dark green, but some specimens occur on which the foliage is 
a light glaucous blue. Cones two to four inches long, cylin- 
drical; bracts toothed, protruding above the scales, and giving 
a fringed appearance to the cones; seeds triangular, reddish on 
the upper side, flat, and white on the lower side. A gigantic 
tree, sometimes 200 to 300 feet in height. When young it is sel- 
dom very symmetrical in form, and is likely to produce heavy 
limbs unless severely crowded. 

Distribution. — Throughout the Rocky Alountains and the 
mountains of California, reaching its greatest height in Oregon. 

Propagation. — One of the easiest conifers to grow from seeds, 
which may be readily obtained from the Rocky Mountain region. 

Properties of Wood. — Hard, strong, durable, varying greatly 
with age and conditions of density, quality and amount of sap- 
wood; difificult to work; color varying from light red to yellow; 
sapwood nearly white. Specific gravity, 0.5157; weight of a 
cubic foot, 32.23 pounds. 
15 



226 



TREES OE MINNESOTA. 




Plate II. Psendotsuga taxifolia: Douglas Spruce. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Stam- 
inate flower, enlarged. 3. Branch bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural 
size. 4. Seeds with wings attached, one-half natural size. 5. Fruiting 
branch, one-half natural size. 6. Cone-scale, lower side, showing bract, 
one-half natural size. 7. Cone-scale, tipper side, showing seed scars, one- 
half natural size. 8. Scale of cone, side view, showing bract, one-half natural 
size. 9. Needle, natural size. 10. Cross section of needle. 11. Winter buds. 



BALSAM FIR. 227 

Uses. — The Douglas Spruce is a fine ornamental tree oi grace- 
ful proportions, good color, rapid growth and wonderful hardi- 
ness. Probably one of the most valuable evergreens for general 
planting in Minnesota, and apparently destined to partly super- 
sede the White and Norway Spruce for this purpose. It is also 
the most promising foreign tree for sowing on the cut-over tim- 
ber lands of this section, and should be largely experimented 
with for this purpose. Two varieties are distinguished by lum- 
bermen, the Red and the Yellow Fir, the former is coarse 
grained and dark colored, and considered less valuable than the 
latter. Both kinds are largely manufactured into lumber, and 
used for all kinds of construction, railway ties, piles, etc. 

Genus ABIiES. 

Trees of pyramidal habit. Leaves sessile, flat, with the midrib 
prominent on the lower surface, appearing two-ranked by a twist 
near the base, giving the horizontal branches a flat appearance. 
Cones erect on the upper side of the branches, maturing the first 
year, when the scales fall, leaving the naked axes standing erect 
on the branches. 

Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. Balsam. 

Leaves narrow, linear, one-half to three-quarters of an inch 
long, dark green above, whitened on the under side, falling dur- 
ing the fifth season. Cones cylindrical, two to four inches long, 
and one inch thick, violet colored; bracts shorter than the scales 
and tipped with a slender point. The branches grow out usually 
in whorls of about five each, with great regularity, and diminish- 
ing in length from below upwards, forming a symmetrical pyra- 
midal top. This is a very striking habit, and gives to the Balsam 
Fir swamps a characteristic aspect. Tree slender, sometimes 
eighty feet high. 

Distribution. — Northeastern United States and Canada, south- 
ward to Virginia, westward beyond the Mississippi and far north 
to Hudson Bay and northwest to Rocky Mountains; growing in 
swamps and cold damp woods. In Minnesota almost confined 
to the northeastern half of the state, extending south to Chisago 
and Isanti counties. 



228 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



^^.^_^l/fi 




Plate 12. Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Anther, open, rear view, 
enlarged. 4. Branch bearing mature cone, one-half natural size. 5. Branch 
bearing axes ot cones alter scales have fallen, one-half natural size. 6. 
Seeds with wings attached, natural size. 7. Seed, enlarged. 8. Scale ot 
cone, upper view, natural size. 9. Scale of cone, lower view, natural size. 



BALSAM FIR. 229 

Proj^agiiticn. — The specie? by seeds, horticultural varieties by 
graftinsT. 

Properties of Wood. — Very soft, light, weak, not durable, with 
distinct coarse grain, color whitish with a sli.ghtly reddish tint 
toward the heart. Specific gravity. 0.3810: weight of a cubic 
foot. 23.8 pounds. 

Ihcs. — The Balsam Fir is very striking and very pretty when 
young. On moist, retentive soil it holds on well in this section, 
but is poorly adapted for general plantin.g, and should be used 
sparingly, if at all. The wood is of very little value, and is sel- 
dom sawed into lumber, but is used for laths, shingles, boxes, 
packing and pulp making. It furnishes Canada Balsam, which 
is an aromatic oil-like resin of considerable commercial impor- 
tance. It is obtained by puncturing the vescicles (blisters) 
formed under the bark of the stem and branches, which contain 
from a few drops to a half teaspoonful each. This is used in the 
arts and medicinally in chronic bronchial and catarrhal affections. 
The smaller branches exhale a delightful odor, and are preferred 
by campers in the woods for- beds. 

Abies concolor. White Fir. Silver Fir. 

Leaves mostly obtuse, pale green, one to two and one-half 
inches long, with two resin ducts close to the epidermis of the 
lower surface. Cones oblong, cylindrical, three to five inches 
long, one to one and three-quarter inches in diameter, pale green 
or sometimes dull purple. A large tree. 

Distribution. — From Arizona to Southern Colorado, Utah, Cal- 
ifornia and Oregon. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of Jl'ood. — Very light, soft, coarse grained, compact, 
not strong; color very light brown or nearly white, with some- 
what darker sapwood. Specific gravity. 0.3638; weight of a 
cubic foot, 22.67 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Fir is justly gaining in popularity as an 
ornamental evergreen. When young it often spreads out on the 
ground, and seems slow to make an upward growth, but after a 
few years it takes on a good broad conical form. Its rather long 
leaves of a pale green color, and its light bark and good form 
give it a very pretty appearance. It has stood for more than ten 



230 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

years on the grounds of the Minnesota Experiment Station with- 
out serious injury, and has made pretty specimens about six feet 
high and nearly as broad. It undoubtedly prefers a moist soil, 
though it has done very well on good retentive upland. The 
wood is of very little value, but is used within its range for cheap 
packing cases, etc. 

Genus THUJA. 

Flowers mostly monoecious, on dififerent branches in small 
terminal catkins, opening in May; anther cells, two to four. 
Scales of the pistillate flowers, eight to twelve. Ovules, two to 
four. Fi'uit an erect, dry, loose cone, from one-third to one-half 
of an inch long, maturing in the autumn of the first season, but 
remaining on the branch until the appearance of the new growth 
the following spring. Seeds oval, about one-eighth of an inch 
wide, and winged all round. Leaves evergreen, small, awl or 
scale shaped, closely imbricated and appressed so as to make a 
flat two-edged branchlet. On the leading shoots the leaves are 
often one-quarter of an inch long. A small genus of evergreen 
trees and shrubs. Only one species, the Arborvitse, comes within 
our range. 

Thuja occidentalis. Arborvitae. White Cedar. 

A tree fifty or sixty feet high, seldom two feet in diameter, but 
occasionally much larger than this. There are many varieties, 
the most of which are characterized by some peculiar habit of the 
branches or by peculiar coloring of the leaves. 

Distribution.— From the valley of the St. Lawrence to north- 
ern Pennsylvania and North Carolina, and from the Atlantic to 
Central Minnesota. A very common tree in cold swamps 
and along river banks and lake shores where the soil is moist. 
In Minnesota very common in the northeastern portion, west to 
Roseau county and south to the south shore of Mille Lacs and 
the mouth of Snake river. It also occurs occasionally as far 
south as the southeastern portion of Winona county. In some 
sections, as along the Mississippi river, in the northern part of 
Aitkin county, it covers large areas with an almost impenetrable 
growth, which are known as cedar swamps. Not found in the 
western or southwestern parts of this state. 



ARBORV1T7F.. 



231 











^:4. 




Thuja occidentalis. Arborvit;e. 



I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, en- 
larged. 3. Stamens, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Scale of 
pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. 
Cone. y. Scale with seed attached, naiural size. 9. J.ongitudinal section 
of seed. 10. Embryo. 11. A leaf, natural size. 12. Crosa secticn of a 
branch, reduced. 13. Seedling, reduced. 



232 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — The seeds of the Arborvitce grow readily, but 
the seedlings must be protected from the full sunlight for the first 
year. The many varieties are propagated from cuttings in a cool 
greenhouse or frame, and root very slowly. 

Properties of IFood. — Very light, soft, close and often spirally 
grained, very durable in contact with the soil, light yellowish 
brown in color, turning darker on exposure; sapwood thin and 
nearly white. Specific gravity, 0.3164; weight of a cubic foot, 
19.72 pounds. 

Uses. — The Arborvitas is a popular plant for evergreen 
hedges, as it forms a close compact top when pruned, and is 
of a bright green color. It stands well in this section when 
growing on good retentive land, but suffers from a deficiency 
of moisture in the soil and occasionally from severe winds 
in winter, and on this account does best in somewhat shel- 
tered locations. The wood is largely used for telegraph poles 
and cross arms for same, fence posts, shingles, paving blocks 
and for the siding of light weight boats and canoes, also for 
tubs, pails, tanks and dash churns. The thick layers of the 
sapwood, which are easily separated, are manufactured by the 
Canadian Indians into baskets and are used to strengthen birch 
bark canoes. The fresh branches often serve the purpose of 
brooms. A decoction or tincture of the young branches of this 
tree is used for intermittent fevers, coughs, scurvy, rheumatism, 
etc., and externally to remove warts. It is also used in homeo- 
pathic practice. 

Varieties. — 

Thuja occidentalis wareana. (/'. sibirica.) Siberian 
Arbor vitae. 

This is of a dark rich green color and compact habit. It is 
one of the best kinds for favorable locations, but not so hardy as 
the species or variety next described. 

Thuja occidentalis fastigiata. ( 7'. o. fy'ram/da//s.) 
Pyramidal Arbor vitae. 

Branches and leaves very distinct, fine and handsome. Form 
upright, regular, pyramidal or almost columnar. Valuable for 
variety, probably as hardy as the species and hardier than most 
of the varieties. 



JUNIPER. 2^13 

Thuja occidentalis aurea. Douglas Golden Arbor- 
vitae. 

In liabit like the species, biU witli a brfght yellow color to the 
leaves; conspicuous and prett}-; rather more tender than the 
species and occasionally snnscalds severely. 

Genus JUNIPERUS. 

A large genus oi evergreen trees and shrubs. Flowers naked, 
dioecious, axillary or terminal. Fruit a fleshy cone, in some 
species reseniblirg a berry or drupe more than a true cone. 

Juniperus virginiana. Red Juniper. Red Cedar. Savin. 

Leaves small, evergreen, opposite, scale-like and awl-shaped, 
the former sort minute, the latter about one-half inch long and 
spreading. Flowers dioecious, or very rarely monoecious; the 
small solitary catkins upon lateral twigs appearing in this section 
in May, Fruit a small dark colored fleshy berry-like cone with 
a light bluish bloom, maturing late in the fall of the first year. 
Fruit, leaves and wood are aromatic and resinous. 

Distribution. — It is the most widely distributed conifer of 
North America. It ranges from the Atlantic to the Rocky 
Mountains and from Northern Minnesota to Florida. In West- 
ern Louisiana and Texas it makes a tree sometimes eighty feet 
high and three or more feet in diameter, but it is usually very 
much smaller. In this section it is nowhere abundant, rarely 
thirty feet high, and generally short and bushy. In the north of 
its range it grows on dry land, while in the south it is often found 
in swamps, but it is not particular about soil. 

Propagation. — By seeds. For planting the berries should be 
gathered in autumn, then bruised and mixed with an equal or 
greater bulk of wet wood ashes or strong lye. In three weeks 
the ashes or lye will have cut the resinous gum so that the seeds 
can be washed clean. They should then be stratified over winter, 
and be sown in the spring, as recommended for coniferous seeds 
in general. The bed should be covered with mulch for the first 
season, as the seeds do not usually start until the second year. 
There are a number of varieties which may be propagated by 
cuttings of the voung wood or bv lavers. 



234 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 







Plate 14. Juniperus virginiana. Red Cedar. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Stam- 
inate fiower, enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Flowering branch of pis- 
tillate tree, one-half natural size. 5. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. A seed, 
enlarged. 7. Scale of pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 9. Transverse sections of Iruit, enlarged. 10. Longi- 
tudinal section of seed, enlarged. 11. Seedling, one-half natural size. 



JUNIPER. 235 

Properties of JVood. — Light, soft, close grained, but brittle and 
not strong, dull red, with thin, nearly white, sapwood, very 
fragrant, easily worked and extremely durable in contact with the 
soil. Specific gravity, 0.4926; weight of a cubic foot, 30.7 
pounds. 

Uses. — The Red Cedar is a valuable ornamental tree for this 
section, of rather slow growth except when young, but very 
hardy and durable. It makes an excellent low windbreak or 
hedge, and bears close pruning without injury. The leaves gen- 
erally turn brown by the latter part of winter. The wood is used 
where great durability in contact with the soil is required, as for 
telegraph poles and fence posts, for interior finishing, cabinet 
making and for lining chests and closets in which woolens are 
preserved against the attacks of moths. It is almost the only wood 

Figure 49. Common Juniper. 

used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and is the most highly 
esteemed of any wood for the manufacture of pails, tubs, brush 
and tool handles, faucets. .\ decoction of the fruit and leaves is 
occasionally used medicinally and an infusion of the berries as 
a diuretic and in homeopathic remedies. Oil of Red Cedar is 
distilled from the leaves and wood, and is used principally in per- 
fumery. 

Juniperus communis. Dwarf Juniper. Common Juni- 
per. Trailing Juniper. 

Leaves in whorls of three, pointed at the base, linear, lanceo- 
late, pointed, dark green on the lower side, channelled and 
glaucous white on the upper side, one-third to one-half inch long, 
spreading at nearly right angles to the branches, have a strong, 
unpleasant, slightly astringent taste, during winter turn to a rich 
bronze color on the lower surface and remain on tree for five or 
six years. Flowers open late in spring. Fruit during the first 



236 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

year does not enlarge, but resembles the flower bud, and does not 
ripen until the autumn of the third season, when it becomes 
flesh}' and berry-like. Sometimes a low, crooked tree, but in our 
range, and commonly elsewhere in the United States, a low 
spreading shrub, often forming dense mats three or four feet 
high. In Southern Illinois it frequently attains a height of twen- 
ty-five feet and forms trunks eight to ten inches in diameter. 
The foliage of the tree form is smaller than that of the dwarf. 

Disfribution. — The common Juniper is the most widely dis- 
tributed tree of the northern hemisphere. In North America it 
ranges from Labrador and Greenland to Pennsylvania on the 
east, across the continent to Alaska and Northern California, and 
along the Rocky Mountains to Northern Nebraska, Western 
Texas and Arizona. In the old world it is widely spread over 
Northern and Central Europe and Asia. In Minnesota often 
found along the blufifs of rivers. 

Propagation.— 'Ey seeds, as for Red Cedar. 

Properties of Wood. — Hard, close-grained, light brown with 
whitish sapwood, susceptible of a fine polish, very durable in con- 
tact with the soil. 

Uses. — The great hardiness and pretty dwarf habit of the com- 
mon Juniper make it desirable in some situations for ornamental 
planting. It readily yields itself to shearing. Many fine speci- 
mens may be seen in the parks of St. Paul and Minneapolis, and 
elsewhere. In India the wood and twigs are burned for incense, 
and on the high Himalayan passes are used for fuel. The fruit 
is gathered in Europe in large quantities for flavoring gin, and is 
occasionally used in medicine. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties that are used in orna- 
mental planting in this country and in Europe, some of which are 
distinguished by the color of the foliage, and others by the habit 
of growth, which may be columnar or pyramidal or dwarf and 
compact. Some of these varieties in English and Dutch gardens 
are trained into the shapes of globes, bowls, animals and other 
fantastic forms. The Swedish Juniper, one of the most distinct 
varieties, has erect branches, which form a narrow pyramidal 
head. 



WALNUT. 237 



JUGLANDACEAE. WALNUT FAMILY. 

Trees with alternate, pinnatcly-compound leaves, no stipules. 
Flowers monoecious; the staminate in catkins with or without 
an irregular calyx and several stamens; the pistillate solitary or 
in clusters of two to five, their common peduncle terminating the 
shoot of the season; calyx, three to five lobcd; stigmas, sessile, 
two-lobed, persistent. Ovary one-celled or incompletely two to 
four-celled, with a single ovule erect from its base; ripens into 
a large fruit, the bony inner part of which forms the shell of the 
nut and the fleshy outer part, the husk. Seed four-lobed, filled 
with fleshy oily embryo and large crumpled or corrugated coty- 
ledons. 

Genus JUGI^ANS. 

Leaves odd-pinnate with numerous serrate leaflets; petioles 
long, grooved on the upper side, gradually enlarged towards the 
base. In falling, the leaves expose large, conspicuous, elevated, 
obcordate, five-lobed scars. Flowers monoecious, opening in 
late spring after the leaves; the staminate in catkins, solitary or 
in pairs from the wood of the preceding year, each with eight to 
forty stamens on very short filaments and a three to six-lobed 
calyx; the pistillate solitary or several in a cluster on a branch 
of the season; calyx four-toothed, bearing in its sinuses four small 
petals; stigmas two, somewhat club-shaped and fringed. Fruit 
large, drupaceous, marked at the apex with the remnant of the 
style and covered with a fibrous, spongy, somewhat fleshy, inde- 
hiscent epicarp (shuck) and a rough, irregularly furrowed endo- 
carp (shell); embryo edible. Trees with sweet, watery juice, 
furrowed, scaly, resinous, aromatic bark and pith that separates 
into thin transverse layers. To this genus belong our native 
Black Walnut and Butternut, and the English Walnut (/. regia) 
of commerce, which has been long in cultivation, and is probably 
a native of Asia Minor. The Japanese use in large quantities a 
walnut belonging to this genus. The species here described have 
long tap roots and but few lateral roots. For this reason they do 
not transplant easily except when very young, or unless the tap 
roots are cut when the seedlings are small. In the latter case 



238 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

lateral roots are produced which may be saved in transplanting. 
It is desirable to plant the nuts where the trees are to remain. 

Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. 

Leaves twelve to twenty-four inches long, leaflets in seven 
to eleven pairs, ovate-lanceolate, lower surface and petioles min- 
utely glandular pubescent, aromatic when bruised. Fruit odorif- 
erous, spongy, usually globose, but occasionally oval, solitary or 
in pairs, one and one-half to two inches in diameter, with a 
rough dotted surface not as deeply furrowed as the Butternut. A 
large tree, sometimes lOO feet high and four to six feet or more in 
diameter. When growing in the open it develops a round head 
and casts a dense shade. 

Distribution. — From Western Massachusetts to Southern 
Minnesota and Eastern Kansas, south to Western Florida and 
the valley of the San Antonio river in Texas. In Minnesota 
formerly a common tree along the creek and river bottoms of 
the southern part of the state, and in a few locations is still rather 
abundant. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which should be gathered in autumn, 
kept stratified with moist leaves or sand over winter, and sown 
in the spring. Also grown to some extent by planting the seeds 
in autumn where the trees are to remain. The varieties are 
grown by grafting. Old trees may be top grafted like apple 
trees. 

Properties of Wood. — Heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse 
grained, easily worked, and very durable in contact with the soil. 
Color a rich, dark brown, with a thin, light sapwood. The fin- 
ished wood has a satiny surface, and will take a beautiful polish. 
Specific gravity, 0.61 15; weight of a cubic foot, 38.11 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Walnut is frequently used for ornamental 
planting in the parks of the United States and Europe. In this 
section, however, we reach the northern limit of its range, and 
find that it is not generally satisfactory when planted in the open, 
but often does well in protected locations and on deep alluvial 
soils. It can sometimes be used to advantage in timber plant- 
ings in the southern half of Minnesota when surrounded by some 
hardier tree to protect it from the wind. It is liable to sun-scald 
when the trunk is exposed in this section. Many large planta- 
tions of this tree have been made in Iowa, Southern Minnesota 



WALNUT. 



1239 











/c 






3. O 





Plate 15. Juglans nigra. Black Walnut. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower before 
anthesis, enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Perianth of stam- 
inate flower, displayed, enlarged. 5. Stamen, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flow- 
er, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, natural size. 
8. Leaf, reduced. 9. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 10. Mature 
fruit, one-half natural size. 11. Walnut with husk removed, one-half nat- 
ural size. 



240 TREES OE MINNESOTA. 

and elsewhere. In good locations the young trees grow rap- 
idly, and soon make good, durable fence posts or nut-bearing 
trees. It is one of the most valuable woods found in America, 
and is largely used in cabinet making, interior finishing, floor- 
ing, gun stocks, furniture, saw handles, veneering, and for- 
merly in boat building and for fence rails and posts, for which 
it was highly esteemed. It is used in the making of school 
apparatus, artists' goods, billiard tables, carpet sweepers, clock 
cases, butter and lunch plates. This timber is now very scarce. 
The nuts are much sought for, and find ready sale. They are 
oily, and have a sweet, pleasant taste, but become rancid with 
age. The husks are used for dyeing, and the leaves are sup- 
posed to possess medical properties. It was formerly believed 
that this tree could be grown at a profit for its valuable timber, 
but it has been found that the wood does not take on its' dark, 
rich, even color until very old, but remains for many years a 
mixture of yellow and brown; hence its cultivation for timber 
has not proved so profitable as was expected. It will, however, 
make board timber in about twenty-five years. 

Juglans cinerea. Butternut. 

Leaves fifteen to thirty inches long; leaflets eleven to nine- 
teen, oblong, lanceolate, pubescent, especially underneath; peti- 
oles and branchlets clammy pubescent. Fruit two to three 
inches long, very clammy pubescent, of a rather pleasant odor 
when fresh, oblong, pointed, two-celled at the base; nut shell 
deeply and irregularly furrowed with rough, ragged ridges; 
embryo very rich in oil and of a delicious flavor. A tree occa- 
sionally loo feet high and three feet in diameter in forests, but 
genei"ally much smaller. Where it grows in the open it forms 
an immense spreading top. 

Distribution.— 'From the valley of the St. Lawrence river to 
Eastern Dakota, southward to Northern Georgia and Northeast- 
ern Arkansas. Not common south of the Ohio river. In Min- 
nesota common in the southern part except far southwest, 
extends north to Aitkin county, where trees have been found 
two feet or more in diameter. 

Propagation. — Same as for Black Walnut. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, not strong, rather coarse 
grained, easily worked, with a satiny surface capable of receiving 



BUTTERNUT. 



241 



/I -^ 




Plate i6. Juglans cincrea. Butternut. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 3. Staminate tlower, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate flower. 5. 
Diagram of staminate flower. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. 
Leaf, reduced. 8. Winter branch, one-half natural size. 



16 



242 TREES OE MINNESOTA. 

a beautiful polish, light brown turning darker with exposure: 
sapwood thin and light colored. Specific gravity. 0.4086; weight 
of a cubic foot, 25.46 pounds. 

Uses.— The Butternut is occasionally used for ornamental 
planting in the parks of this country, but is seldom a safe tree 
to depend on in Minnesota when growing in the open. In pro- 
tected locations it may be used as a shade tree, but is more valua- 
ble in timber plantings. It is found farther north than the Black 
Walnut, and is somewhat hardier, but is more easily injured by 
drouth. The wood is not so valuable as that of the Black Wal- 
nut, but is nevertheless very desirable for interior finishing, cab- 
inet making and furniture and tool handles. The nuts, which 
ripen in October, contain a large amount of oil, are delicious 
when fresh, and are generally preferred to the nuts of the Black 
Walnut, but like them they become rancid with age. The unripe 
nuts are sometimes gathered early in June, when they are tender, 
and after removing the clammy pubescent by scalding and rub- 
bing with a coarse cloth make excellent pickles. The inner bark 
is white, but becomes light yellow and ultimately dark brown 
upon exposure to the air. It possesses mild cathartic properties, 
that from the root being especially valued as a safe cathartic. 
The acrid leaves have been used as a substitute for Spanish flies. 
Sugar of excellent quality has been made from the sap, and a 
dye for coloring cloth a yellow or orange color is obtained from 
the green husks of the fruit and from the bark, and formed the 
butternut color commonly used in the early history of this coun- 
try. 

Genus HICORIA. 

Leaves alternate, odd-pinnate, with few leaflets. Flowers 
monoecious, apetalous; the staminate in clustered lateral cat- 
kins,' each cluster on a terminal peduncle; the pistillate, two to 
six together on a terminal peduncle; stigmas two to four, large. 
Fruit a smooth or angled nut, covered with a four-valved husk, 
which generally separates at maturity. The leaves of most, if 
not all, the hickories are aromatic and astringent, and the bark 
is astringent and bitter. The bark has been successfully used in 
the treatment of dyspepsia and intermittent fevers and in homeo- 
pathic practice. The Indians used an oil made from the nuts. 



HICKORY. 243 

Hicoria ovata. {Caryo alha.) Shagbark Hickory. 

Shellbark Hickory. 

Leaves eight to fourteen inches long; Icallets five (rarely 
seven), obovate to oblong-lanceolate, cihate; fruit globose, 
depressed at the apex; nut pale or nearly white, more or less 
flattened, four-angled, thin or lliick shelled, covered with thick- 
husk; meat highly flavored. Bark of old trees is very shaggy, 
separating into wide, rough strips, and often falling away in 
large pieces. A sturdy, beautiful tree, often seventy to ninety 
feet high in forests: in the open forming an inversely conical 
top. with pendulous branches. 

Distribution. — From Maine and the valley of the St. Lawrence 
river westward along the southern region of the Great Lakes to 
Central Minnesota and Kansas, south to Western Florida, 
Northern Alabama and Eastern Texas. In Minnesota common 
in a few counties in the extreme southeastern portion of the 
state. 

Propagation. — By seeds sown in autumn or stratified over win- 
ter in moist leaves or sand and sown in the spring; also, by root 
sprouts. Grafted only with much difficulty. 

Properties of JVood. — Heavy, very hard, strong, tough, close 
grained and flexible, not durable when exposed to moisture. It 
is light colored, with thin nearly white sapwood. Specific grav- 
ity, 0.8372; weight of a cubic foot, 52.17 pounds. 

Uses. — The Shagbark Hickory is often very ornamental, and 
is used to some extent in park planting. It is also planted for 
the nuts, which find a ready sale. These vary greatly in size, 
thickness of shell and in quality, and none but the best should 
be planted for fruit. The tree is of exceedingly slow growth, 
and is not of sufficient hardiness to warrant planting it in any but 
a few very favorable locations in Southern Minnesota. The wood 
is largely used for ax and tool handles, plane blocks, wood 
screws, mallets, skewers, baskets, fuel and in the manufacture of 
agricultural implements^ carriages and wagons, gymnasium 
apparatus, connecting rods for pumping machinery, etc. The 
second growth hickory is tougher, and on this account most 
desirable for these purposes. Hickory is also used in ship and 
boat building, hoops for barrels, tubs and pails, and oxbows are 
made from the sapwood. 



244 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 17. Hicoria minima. Bitternut Hickory. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, en- 
larged. 3. Ivongitudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting 
branch, one-half natural size. 5. Cross section of nut, one-half natural 
size. 6. Longitudinal section of nut, one-half natural size. 7. Winter 
branchlet, one-half natural size. 



HICKORY. 245 

Hicoria minima. (Carya a?u(ira.) Bitternut Hickory. 

Swamp Hickory. 

Leaves six to ten inches long; leaflets five to nine, sessile, 
lanceolate t6 oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate; buds 
orange yellow in winter, resembling those of the Butternut, open- 
ing by valves, which fall away early. Fruit globular; shuck 
very thin; nut yellowish, thin-shelled, bitter. The bark does not 
shell oflf as in Shagbark Hickory. A slender tree of graceful 
habit, sometimes eighty feet high, but within our range much 
smaller. It is a more rapid grower than the other hickories. 

Distribtttion. — From New England, Ontario and Minnesota 
south to Florida and Texas, in moist woods and near the borders 
of streams and swamps. In Minnesota frequent in the southern 
part of the state, extending through the Big Woods north to 
Mille Lacs county. 

Propagation. — The same as for Shagbark Hickory. 

Properties of Wood. — Heavy, very hard, strong, tough and 
close grained, liable to check badly in drying; color dark brown, 
with thick light brown or nearly white sapwood. Specific grav- 
ity, 0.7552; weight of a cubic foot, 47.06 pounds. 

Uses.— The Bitternut Hickory is a good ornamental tree, and 
quite hardy in proper locations in Minnesota. It is probably the 
most desirable of the hickories, either for ornamental use or for 
hoop poles in this section. The wood is inferior to that of the 
Shagbark Hickory, but is used for about the same purposes. It 
is said that in early days an oil pressed from the nuts was used 
for illuminating purposes. 



24G TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



SALICACEAE. WILLOW FAMILY. 

A large family of trees and shrubs, mostly inhabiting cold 
climates. Leaves alternate, simple, undivided, and furnished 
with stipules which are scale-like and deciduous, or leaf-like and 
persistent. Flowers, dioecious, both kinds in catkins, one under 
each bract or scale of the catkin, without calyx or corolla; in 
some cases the calyx is represented by a gland-like cup; ovary 
one or two-celled. Fruit a one or two-celled, two-valved pod, 
with numerous seeds attached to a parietal or basal placenta, 
ripening in early summer and furnished with long, silky down. 

Genus SAIylX. 

Leaves generally narrow, long and pointed. Flowers appear 
before or with the leaves, in terminal or lateral, cylindrical, 
imbricated, generally erect catkins; two or more distinct or 
united stamens; stigmas two, short. Fruit a one-celled two- 
valved pod. Trees or shrubs with smooth round branches, usu- 
ally found growing in moist land. A large and valuable genus 
of over i6o species, the greater number belonging to Europe and 
Asia. About sixty species belong to North America. A dwarf 
willow is found growing the farthest north of any shrub. Only 
two tree-like species are indigenous within our range, but there 
are several foreign kinds mentioned here that are of much value 
for cultivation in this climate. 

Propagation. — The willows increase readily from cuttings, and 
are seldom grown in any other way. The cuttings grow readily 
at almost any season of the year, provided they are put in moist 
soil. Even in midsummer cuttings of firm wood a half inch or 
more in diameter will grow readily if planted in moist soil, but 
the best time to make cuttings is in the fall or spring, when wood 
of any age or size will root if properly planted. Some of the 
weeping varieties are grown by top-working in upright stocks. 

Uses. — The bark of the trees of all species of Salix with bitter 
bark yields salicylic acid, which is now used medicinally in the 
treatment of typhoid fever, gout and rheumatism. During the 
Civil War ground willow bark was used in the treatment of 
fevers in some of the Southern hospitals when quinine could not 



OSIER WILLOWS. 247 

be obtained. The bark of some species is used for tanning 
leather. The slender tough twigs are used extensively for bas- 
ket making and tying. They are often cultivated solely for this 
purpose. The wood of the Willow is not very valuable, but it 
is used for light fuel, for charcoal to be used in the manufacture 
of gunpowder and artists' charcoal, and that of some kinds for 
timber in a limited way, as hoops for kegs and barrels and for 
artificial limbs. Some kinds are also planted largely for holding 
the banks of streams and for windbreaks. For ornamental plant- 
ing some kinds are used that are very pretty in flower and foliage, 
which quality, taken in connection with the ease with which they 
are propagated, their hardiness and the rapidity with which they 
grow, have made them largely used. Although most of the wil- 
lows flourish best when they have abundant moisture at their 
roots, many of them will stand well on any land good enough for 
corn, and a few kinds, such as the White Willow, are among the 
hardiest kind we have for prairie planting. 

Osier Willows is a term that is applied to a variety of wil- 
lows which are grown for their twigs, which are used for basket 
making. The plantations made for this purpose are termed osier 
holts. The growing of osiers has not been carried on to any 
great extent in this country, but they are generally imported. 
At Syracuse, N. Y.. and near a few other large cities here, it has 
reached a considerable degree of development. A large amount 
of these osiers are imported into this country each year, and an 
immense amount of willow basket material is used. The price 
paid for the rods, when of a proper length and in good condition, 
is about fifteen dollars a ton, green. The yield per acre around 
Syracuse, N. Y., is about four tons of green rods, but occa- 
sionally as high as eight tons has been obtained. Dried peeled 
rods are worth somewhere about sixty dollars per ton. In order 
to facilitate peeling, which in this case is termed stripping, the 
rods are steamed until the bark comes of^f easily. These are not 
as white, however, as those which are sap-peeled in the spring, 
but the latter are not as durable as steam-peeled rods. 

The best soil for the growing of basket willows is a deep, 
sandy soil, drained yet moist. If water for irrigation can be 
commanded, so much the better, but the basket willows will 
prosper on even rather dry soil of good quality, but do not grow 



248 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

as fast as on moist soil. Avoid locations where stagnant water 
stands in summer. Among the best situations is along the riv- 
ers and brooks that pass through a level country, and on small 
islands which frequently are found in the midst of streams, or 
swales or hollows. If these places are occasionally quite wet in 
winter, it does not seem to injure seriously the basket willows. 

In preparing the soil for this purpose care should be taken 
to make it very rich, and, if necessary, for best growth it should 
be heavily manured with stable manure, and as carefully pre- 
pared as if for a crop of corn. The best time for planting is in 
the late autumn, or very early in the spring, and the best cuttings 
are those about twelve inches long. Put these cuttings in so 
that their tops are even with the ground, but do not cover them 
with earth. Some growers prefer to set the cuttings about 
four inches apart in rows twenty inches apart for best results. 
This gives a thick, close growth, which sufficiently shades the 
soil between the rows ihat weeds cannot grow there. If the 
plants should prove to be too thick, every alternate one can be 
grubbed out after the third year. This method will require about 
65,000 cuttings to the acre. Other growers prefer to set twelve 
inches apart in rows three feet apart. This gives a chance to 
work between the rows with a horse, which is quite an advantage 
under some conditions. This method requires about 15,000 cut- 
tings per acre. 

On land that is wet late in autumn the willows are liable to 
grow too long, and not ripen their shoots, which is an important 
consideration in the growing of basket willows; since, if the 
shoots are not ripened at the time growth ceases, they are worth- 
less for basket purposes, being soft and brittle. The rods should 
be cut the first year, even if of no value, for if the cutting is 
delayed until the second year, the plants will have branched, and 
will produce much less valuable material. The rods should be 
cut as near the surface of the ground as possible. They should 
then be tied in bundles about ten inches in diameter, and, if it 
is intended to sap-peel them, these bundles should be placed in 
running water, standing upright, until the leaves or sprouts 
appear in the spring, when they should be ready to peel. This 
method of peeling is termed sap-peeling. When it is intended to 
remove the bark by steaming or boiling, the bundles may be set 
up anywhere until dry, when they may be stored in sacks or in 



OSIER WILLOWS. 24a 

covered sheds until wanted. Rods thus treated will be of a 
darker color than those peeled in the spring after the sap has 
started, owing to the fact that the wood is stained by the color- 
ing matter in the bark, which is dissolved and taken up by the 
wood. These dark-colored rods, however, make the most valua- 
ble baskets. Willows should never be cut when the sap is flow- 
ing, as the material is poor, being too soft and turning black 
when peeled. Besides, they injure the plants by robbing them 
of their yearly supply of root nourishment. The cutting should 
always be done carefully, and in such a manner as not to split 
or mutilate the stocks. The peeling is done by pulling the rods 
through a springy wooden fork, shaped like a clothespin, but 
larger, and with blunt edges inside. This presses against the rod 
and loosens the bark in strands without injuring the wood. The 
rod is afterwards dried in the open air and put up in bundles of 
fifty pounds for the market. 

Peeled rods keep much better than those left with the bark 
on, and this is said to be the most profitable way in which to 
market the product. The willow is generally a healthy plant, 
and rather free from insect enemies under ordinary conditions; 
but when grown in large groups of pure willows, it is occasionally 
attacked by rust and also by insects. The leaf-eating insects are 
easily destroyed by Paris green, used in the same way as is com- 
mon for the destruction of the potato bug. 

The Osier Willow, which has here proven most productive 
of the long, slender shoots so desirable for basket-making, is the 
Salix purp%irea, and at the University Experiment Station this 
has frequently made a growth of six feet long in the season. 
It should be understood by anyone who undertakes this line of 
work that long, slender rods arc desirable, and that one rod six 
feet long may be worth as much as several that are not over 
three or four feet long. Almost any willow may be used for 
making the common, coarse baskets, but for the better class of 
willow goods the special osier willows should be grown. The 
common White Willow and also the Golden Willow produce 
rods of fairly good quality. 

Wisconsin Weeping Willow. 

A willow known among horticulturists as the Wisconsin 
Weeping Willow (botanical name not known) has been grown 



250 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate i8. Salix nigra. Black Willow. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate 
catkin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5 Longitudinal 
section of ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiimg branch, one-half natural size. 7. 
Summer branch, one-half natural size. 



WILLOW. 251 

to a considerable extent here and is our best large Weeping Wil- 
low. It attains large size in favorable locations, but is occa- 
sionally killed back by severe winters. 

Salix nigra. Black Willow. 

Leaves vary greatly in 
^nP^! size and outline on differ- 

h'ki'i^\'<4T\^i'\ .- t^nt trees, but are generally 



-■jf^/i^'W^:^T^'- narrowly lanceolate, long 

'i''*''!'^'^!'"' ■'^i';^" \"- '-^^'' pointed, serrulate, some- 

f{i''/''*' J^**^.'''*H^''*^^^^^^^ ' what pubescent especially 

.-4k- **^ i~t A i'-'i-^'v'C.-V'i on the lower surface; when 

ii>^^i, -.-^itf !• 4>ir' A*; . c. mature two and one-half to 

five inches long, bright 

, ^^yr^^iK-ri-^T i'>\'- - jf- . r,...vt'>'. green and glabrous above, 

Vf;,-'V/^/// ;\^' . :^ il?i . V^i'i 'J^; ' somewhat paler and glab- 

f *V f ' I ? 'Iff ■ ' ' • brous beneath, and some- 

_.A.;v.^j.. times pubescent on the 

"•"' underside of midribs. Stip- 

Figure 50. Wisconsin Weeping Willow. . ^ , 

" ules persistent or soon fall- 

ing away. Catkins appear witli the leaves; stamens three to 
seven, distinct. Our largest native willow, forming a large tree, 
with dark brown or almost black rough flaky bark. 

Distribution. — Along streams and lakes. New Brunswick to 
Eastern Dakota, south to Florida, Texas and Arizona. 

Propagation. — By cuttings, but seedlings may often be gath- 
ered. 

Properties of Jf'ooJ.— Light, soft, weak, close grained, checks 
badly in drying; light reddish brown, with nearly white sap- 
wood. Specific gravity. 0.4456; weight of a cubic foot, 27.77 
pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Willow is seldom used for ornamental or 
timber planting. The wood is used for fuel and the bark domes- 
tically in the treatment of fevers. 

Salix amygdaloides. Almondleaf Willow. Peachleaf 
Willow. 

Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed, three to 
five or more inches long, slightly pubescent when young, green 
above, pale and glaucous below with stout yellow or orange-col- 



252 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 19. Sali.v amygdaloides. Almondleaf Willow. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, onelialf natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower 
with scale, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower with scale, enlarged. 5. Fruiting 
branch, one-half natural size. 6. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 7. 
]?ud and leaf scar. 



WILLOW. 253 

ored midrib. Stipules often one-half inch broad, on vigorous 
shoots, but scarcely appearing on the weaker branches. Catkins 
appear with the leaves; stamens five to nine, distinct. A small 
tree, occasionally seventy feet high. 

Distribution. — Along lakes and streams. Quebec to the valley 
of the Upper Saskatchewan river and Oregon, south to Ohio, 
Missouri and Texas. Common in Minnesota. 

Propagation.- — By cuttings. Seedlings can generally be gath- 
ered. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, weak, close grained, light 
brown with thick whitish sapwood. Specific gravity, 0.4509: 
weight of a cubic foot, 28.10 pounds. 

Uses. — The Almondleaf Willow is not as desirable as several 
other willows for cultivation, but in suitable locations makes a 
very pretty tree. The wood is used for fuel. 

Salix alba. White Willow. 

Leaves lanceolate, taper pointed and tapering to the petiole, 
serrate with thickened teeth, silky on both sides when young, 
less so and pale or glaucous beneath when mature; stipules 
deciduous. Flowers appear in May, with the leaves at the ends 
of leafy lateral shoots of the season; stamens two. Fruit 
matures in June. Tree sometimes attains a height of eighty feet, 
with a trunk three or four feet in diameter, and ascending 
branches. 

Distribution. — Native of Northern Europe and Asia, but was 
early brought to this country, and has become naturalized from 
the valley of the St. Lawrence to the Potomac. There are many 
varieties, and probably many hybrids of this with the American 
and European species. The form of the White Willow com- 
monly used for windbreaks on our prairies has been considered 
by some as a hybrid between S. fragilis and S. alba, and by others 
as but a variety of S. alba. The pistillate tree is most commonly 
met with here. 

Propagation. — It can be propagated easily from cuttings of 
large or small size. In growing this tree lor windbreaks some 
planters prefer to use poles instead of common cuttings, laying 
them in furrows in the prepared soil, where they are all covered 



254 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 20. Salix alba. White Willow. 

I. Flowering branch from 'staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. 
Flowering branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale ot 
staminate catkin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, front view, en- 
larged, s. Scale of pistillate catkin, rear view, enlarged. 6. Fruiting 
branch, one-half natural size. 7. Leaf, one-half natural size. 8. Winter 
branchlet, one-half natural size. 9. Seedling. 



WIM.OW. 255 

except at interv.Tis of about two iVct. at wliicli places thoy sprout 
and grow. 

Properties of Wood. — Soft, liglit, tou^h. stronp and very flexi- 
ble. 

Uses. — The White Willow is one of the iiinst valuable trees 
to use for windbreaks on our prairies. Wonderfully hardy even 
in dry locations. It sprouts vigorously from the stump and fur- 
nishes good straight poles of uniform size, which if cut in sum- 
mer and the bark peeled off will last for a number of years 
exposed to the weather. When thoroughly dried they make 
fence posts that will last about six years, but generally are not 
durable. The fuel if dried under cover has greater value for 
summer use than is generally supposed. Some data collected by 
the Minnesota Experiment Station seem to show that the White 
Willow, on good land, may yield as much as five and one-half 
cords of firewood per acre per year. In Europe the wood is 
used for rafters of buildings, for the lining of carts used in haul- 
ing stone, in turnery, for baseball and cricket bats, and for any 
purpose where a very light, strong, tough wood is needed. The 
leaves are used as forage for cattle and the bark for tanning 
leather, for which purpose it is considered nearly as good as 
oak bark. A row of White Willow set about four feet apart 
with barbed wire put on them makes a very permanent and 
serviceable fence. Live willow posts or stakes that are used to 
support barbed wire soon root and become permanent trees in 
moist soil. The White Willow will not make a good low hedge, 
as it does not stand very close pruning. 

Varieties. — The White Willow has given rise to a large num- 
ber of varieties, among the best of which are the following: 

Salix alba vittellina. Common Golden Willow. 

A pretty tree at all seasons, bul particularly so in winter and 
early spring, on account of its bright yellow bark; form like that 
of the species. This variety has been largely planted, but is 
now generally supplanted by the next, which is a better orna- 
mental tree. This has become naturalized in this country, though 
it is probable that only the pistillate form is found in this sec- 
tion. 



256 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



Salix alba vittellina (from Russia.) Russian Golden 
Willow. 

A very rapid growing, round, close-topped tree, with glossy 

deep green foliage, bright golden colored bark in winter, and 

i bright yellow, conspicuous, 









fragrant, staminate catkins, 
appearing with the leaves in 
the spring. ' One of the best 
quick-growing trees for this 
section, and very valuable for 
giving variety to lawn and 
timber plantings. Under 

favorable conditions a cutting 
of this has been known to 
;'ii$^£7T^S;^/>i^'*- make a tree ten inches through' 
'"'"■■fvlr-m-" '■■" the trunk with a top that 

P spread over thirty feet in eight 

1^' years. The staminate form is 

perhaps the only one grown 
in this country. 






t^- ^'-h.^ 



Figure 51. Russian Golden Wil 
low. A round-topped tree. 



Salix alba britzensis. 

A variety of the White Willow, 
with attractive reddish twigs in 
winter, pyramidal form and rapid 
growth. Valuable for variety in 
timber plantings, parks, etc. 

Salix alba regalis. (Salix 
7-e^a/is. ) Royal WiUow. 

A distinct form of the White 
Willow forming a small tree or 
shrub; the foliage of which is 
covered with silky down, which 
gives it a silvery appearance. A 
very hardy tree, useful for vari- 
ety in ornamental planting. 






-'■i'*^'-'?' 



Figure 52 Salix alba britseiisis. 
A conical-shaped tree. 



WILLOW 



Salix pentandra. ( V«//.v lauiifoUa of horticulturists.) 

I^aurelleaf Willow. 
Leaves larger than those of any otiier of our cultivated wil- 
lo';vs. taper pointed, fineh' serrate with large stipules; upper sur- 
face of leaf dark green and shining as if var- 
nishcd. Leaves are very thick, and so hard 
SS, that the saw-fly 'larvjc are seldom found feed- 

A\,r)) ing on it. A vigorous grower when young, 

making a small, round, open topped tree; val- 
uable for variety. The only objection to the 
extensive planting of this tree here is a blight, 
which is occasionally injurious to it. On this 
account it should be used only in a small way. 
The form planted here bears pistillate flowers. 
Native of Europe. Propagated by cuttings. 










Salix lucida. 

Shininu Willow. 



Glossyleaf Willow. 



Figure 5,v Leaf 
of Laurel leaf Wil- 
low, one-half nat- 
ural size. 



Leaves three to five inches long and one 
to one and one-half inches wide, lanceolate, 
taper-pointed, dark green and glossy on the 
upper and paler on the lower surface with 
broad yellow midribs. Stipules one-eighth to 
one-quarter of an inch broad, remaining all 
summer. Catkins later than the leaves; sta- 
mens usually five, distinct. Occasionally a 
small tree, but within our range a shrub. 

Z)/.y/ri"6H/("o;j.— Newfoundland to Hudson Bay, westward to base 
of Rocky Mountains and south to Pennsylvania and Eastern Ne- 
braska. 

Propagation. — By cuttings and by seeds. 

Uses. — The Glossyleaf Willow is a pretty ornamental shrub on 
account of its lustrous green leaves and showy staminale flowers. 
Much resembles the Almondleaf W'illow. 



Salix acutifolia. 

Leaves lanceolate-acuminate, dark green and shining above, 
pale glaucous below, crenate, those on strong shoots stipulate. 
Twigs yellowish green, older branches covered with a heavy pur- 
plish bloom. Catkins thick, stiff and very silky, appearing before 
17 



258 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 21. Salix hicida. Glossyleaf Willow. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, 
one-half natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, enlarged. 5. bcale ot 
pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. Mature iruit, enlarged. 7. Summer branch, 
one-half natural size. 



POPLAR. 



259 



the leaves. A very Iiardy tree nr shrub of graceful habit attain- 
ing a height of twenty feet. More difTicult to propagate than 
most willows, and occasionally blights severely. 



Salix purpurea pendula. 
Willow. 



(S. n(if>o/conis.) Napoleon 



Leaves one and one-half to two inches long, linear, finely 
serrate, green and shining above, dull bluish green beneath; 
petioles short. Young twigs and petioles reddish. A spreading 
shrub, but when top-worked on an upright stock forms a very 




Figure 54. Napoleon Willow, top-worked on White Willow. 

pretty tree, with spreading pendulous branches. Hardy at the 
Minnesota Experiment Station. Known among nurserymen as 
New American Willow, but often worked on too tender stocks. 



Genus POPUI^US. 

Leaves alternate, broad, more or less heart shaped or ovate. 
Flowers dioecious. Individual trees bearing staminate and pis- 
tillate catkins, and also catkins having the two kinds of flowers 
mixed together occasionally occur. Flowers appear before the 
leaves in long, usually drooping, lateral, cylindrical catkins, the 
scales of which are furnished with a fringed margin; the calyx 
is represented by an oblique cup-shaped disk, with entire mar- 
gin; stamens usually numerous; ovary short; stigmas long, two- 
lobod; fruit described under family Salicaccce, ripening before the 



2G0 TREES OF MINNESOTx\. 

full development of the leaves in May or June. A genus of about 
twenty species of soft wooded trees, mostly natives of cold cli- 
mates, one-half of which are found in North America. 

PopuluS tremuloides. Aspen, American Aspen. Quak- 
ing Asp. Poplar. Popple. 

Leaves ovate or obicular, with a sharp, short apex, small, 
smooth on both sides; petiole long, flattened. Flowers in April 
before the leaves in hairy catkins. Fruit a small, two-valved 
capsule; seeds very small. Bark smooth, greenish white except 
on very old trees; twigs not angular. This is generally a small, 
short-lived tree, but occasionally it grows sixty or more feet 
high. The pendulous leaves tremble in the slightest breeze; the 
silver gray bark is attractive and the autumn color of the leaves 
is one of the purest golden yellows found among trees. 

Distribution. — From Southern Labrador to southern shores of 
Hudson Bay, to the Mackenzie and Yukon rivers, south to 
Pennsylvania, Missouri, New Mexico and Lower California and 
through all mountain ranges of the West. One of the most 
widely distributed trees of North America. In Minnesota it is 
found throughout the state, and is very common on cut-over tim- 
ber lands, where it is generally the first tree to take possession 
of the land after the pine is cut off. It grows most luxuriantly 
along the borders of swamps and open forest glades. The seed 
is carried long distances by the wind. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which grow freely; but the seeds, 
however, are seldom sown in nurseries, as the limited demand 
for this species is easily supplied by the seedlings which spring 
up along the lake shores and sand bars. 

Properties of IVood.—h'ight, soft, not strong, close grained, of 
cottony fiber, and soon decays in contact with the soil. It is of 
a light brown color, with thick, nearly white, sapwood. Specific 
gravity, 0.4032; weight of a cubic foot, 25.13 pounds. 

Uses. — On account of the color of the bark and the autumn 
color of the leaves an occasional specimen of Aspen can be used 
to advantage to give variety to our tree plantings. Although it 
grows rapidly when young, it is of very slow growth when older. 
The wood is used for paper pulp, and occasionally for interior 
finishing and for turnery. It makes good light fuel if cured 
under cover. 



POPLAR. 



2G1 




Plate 



Fopultis treinuloidcs. Aspen. 



I. Flowering branch of staniinate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate 
catkin, enlarged. 4. Stamen, enlarged. 5. Scale of pistillate catkin, en- 
larged. 6. Longitudinal section of pistil. 7. Mature fruit, natural size. 8. 
Fruit, showing mode of dehiscence, natural size. 9. Seed, enlarged. 10. 
Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 11. Embryo, enlarged. 12. Fruit- 
ing branch, one-half natural size. 



262 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Populus grandidenta. I^argetooth Aspen. 

Leaves roundish-ovate, with coarse unequal teeth, densely 
covered with silk)' wool beneath when young, smooth on both 
sides when old; petioles flattened, twigs not angled. Flowers in 
hairy catkins three to four inches long, the staminate catkins 
longer than the pistillate, stamens about twelve; seeds very 
small, dark brown. A medium-sized slender tree, with greenish 
gray bark rarely over seventy-five feet high and two feet in 
diameter; resembles the Aspen, and is sometimes confounded 
with it, but unlike the common Aspen it rapidly attains consid- 
erable size under cultivation. 

Distribution.— 'From Nova Scotia west to Northern Minnesota 
and North Dakota, south to North Carolina, Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee. In Minnesota throughout most of the state in forests, 
usually in rich moist sandy soil near swamps and streams. 

Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, and close grained but not 
strong; light brown with thin, white sapwood. Specific gravity, 
0.4632; weight of a cubic foot, 28.87 pounds. 

Uses. — The Largetooth Aspen can sometimes be planted in 
timber belts to advantage. It makes good straight poles for 
various farm purposes and for framing; it is also used for wood 
pulp, and occasionally in turnery and for woodenware. 

Varieties. — Populus grandidenta has given rise to several varie- 
ties with pendulous branches, which when grafted on straight 
stems of the species are used in ornamental planting and form 
the best weeping poplars. 

Populus balsamifera. Balm of Gilead. Tacamahac. 

Leaves ovate, lanceolate, acute or taper pointed, smooth on 
both sides; petioles not prominently flattened; buds in spring 
are large and abundantly covered and saturated with a fragrant 
aromatic varnish. Flowers appear in April or May; the stami- 
nate catkins two to three inches, and the pistillate four to six 
inches in length; stamens very numerous, purple. Seeds with a 
large cottony float. A large, upright tree, with narrow straight 
top, and nearly smooth gray bark, the largest of the sub-arctic 
trees. 



POPLAR. 



2iVd 




Plate 23. Popiilus balsamifcra. Balm of Gilcau. 

1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, 
one-half natural size. 4. Scale oi staminate catkin, enlarged. 5. Scale ot 
pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. Scale without flower, displayed, enlarged. 7. 
Mature fruit. 8. Seed, enlarged. 9. Longitudinal section of seed, en- 
larged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. Winter branch showing buds, one-half 
natural size. 



2G4 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Distribution. — Over the low bottom lands and swamp boiders 
of the greater part of British America and the northern part of 
the United States. In Minnesota found throughout the northern 
part of the state. 

Propagation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, not strong, close grained; 
light brown, with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity, 
0.3635; weight of a cubic foot, 22.65 pounds. 

Uses. — The Balm of Gilcad and its varieties are occasionally 
used for ornamental planting, but while they are of rapid growth 
and occasionally make good specimens, their open habit and lia- 
bility to die in the top make them undesirable for extensive plant- 
ing. The wood is excellent for paper pulp. The buds are used 
in liniments; their virtues probably being analagous to those of 
turpentine and the balsams. 

Varieties. — 

Populus balsamifera candicans. Hairy Balm of 
Gilead. 

This form has a wider leaf, longer and more resinous buds, 
more spreading branches, heavier wood, and is a more orna- 
mental tree than the species. It is common m plantings in the 
Northeastern States and Eastern Canada. 

Populus balsamifera intermedia. 

A European form, with close, upright habit and very thick, 
hard, oval leaves, which are whitened beneath. It is known to 
horticulturists as P. laurifolia and P. siherica pyramidalis. 

Populus balsamifera viminalis. 

A native of Northern Europe. The tree is of slender growth, 
with a slightly weeping habit when old. It has sharply angled 
twigs and willow-like leaves. Known to horticulturists as P. 
lindleyana, P. salicifolia, P. crispa, P. dudleyi and P. pyramidalis 
suaz'eolens. 

Populus balsamifera latifolia. 

A variety including several Asiatic forms, with ovate leaves, 
cylindrical twigs and general habit of the Balsam Poplar. The 



POPLAR. 



lit!.", 



forms of tliis arc kiiDwn to Iioriicullurists as P. Nolcsti and /'. 
U'obsky. 

Populus angustifolia. Narrowleaf Cottonwood. 

Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, narrow at base, green 
on both sides; branches rather 
slender with smooth bark. Cat- 
kins densely flowered, one and 
one-half to two inches long; 
stamens twelve to twenty; pistil- 
late catkins lengthen as the fruit 
grows, and when the seeds are 
ripe the catkins are from two and 
one-half to four inches long. Tree 
much smaller than the common 
Cottonwood, it seldom being 
more than fifty feet high and fif- 
teen inches in diameter, resem- 
bling a willow more than a pop- 
lar. 

Distribution. — It is found along 
streams in Montana, Assiniboia, 
Black Hills of South Dakota and Northwestern Nebraska to Ari- 
zona. It is the common Poplar of Southern Montana, Eastern 
Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and Northern Colorado. 
Prot<agation. — By seeds and cuttings. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft and weak; light brown, with 
thin, nearly white, sapwood. Specific gravity, 0.3912; weight of 
a cubic foot, 24.38 pounds. 

Uses. — The Narrowleaf Cottonwood is used as a shade and 
street tree in towns of Colorado and Utah, for which purpose it 
docs very well if provided with water, and soon forms a conical 
shapely head. It is hardy in Minnesota, but has been planted here 
but a few vcars. 




Figure 55. Leaves of Narrow- 
leaf Cottonwood, one-third nat- 
ural size. 



Populus deltoides. (P. monili/cra.) Cottonwood. Car- 
olina Poplar. Yellow Cottonwood. 

Leaves large, deltoid or broadly ovate, usually abruptly acu- 
minate, coarsely crenate; petioles laterally compressed. Twigs 



266 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

and smaller branches thick, smoother, but sharp angled or 
winged, at length becoming round. When the leaves unfold 
they are gummy and fragrant, with a balsamic odor, and covered 
more or less with white soft hairs; at maturity they are thick, 
leathery and green on both sides. Catkins pendulous; the 
staminate densely flowered and from three to four inches in 
length and a half inch in thickness; the pistillate sparsely flow- 
ered, thin stemmed and often a foot long before the ripening of 
the seeds. Stamens sixty or more to each flower. Seed oblong, 
one-twelfth of an inch in length, and surrounded by a tuft of 
long hairs, which aid in its distribution. Tree sometimes lOO 
feet high, with trunk occasionally seven or eight feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Quebec south to Florida and west to the 
base of the Rocky Mountains, from Alberta to New Mexico 
along banks of streams, where it often forms extensive groves. 
In Minnesota common in the southern part of the state, but rare 
farther north. 

Propagation. — By seeds and by cuttings. Seedlings can be 
obtained in large quantities on the sand bars along our rivers and 
on shores of receding lakes, and this is the chief source of sup- 
ply. The opinion is common that seedlings are longer lived than 
plants from cuttings. 

Properties of Wood. — Light, soft, spongy and weak, although 
close grained; dark brown, with thick nearly white sapwood. 
Specific gravity, 0.3889; weight of a cubic foot, 24.24 pounds. 

Uses.— The Cottonwood has been largely used in the Western 
States for timber and fuel, as a shade tree and for windbreaks. 
For all these purposes it is a very inferior tree, but on account 
of its abundance, rapid growth and hardiness it has almost neces- 
sarily been largely used in the pioneer work of settlement. As 
a timber tree it is inferior on account of its timber warping 
badly in drying and being extremely difficult to season. As a 
tree for shade and windbreaks it is not so valuable as the Green 
Ash, White Willow, White Elm or Boxelder; on the dry prairie 
it is subject to leaf rust, is short-lived, and fails to make a shade 
dense enough to keep the grass out of groves. The pistillate 
form is objectionable on account of the cottony floats with which 
it fills the air when shedding its seed. It has, however, done 
good service in our Western States, and may continue to be of 



POPLAR. 



'JU7 




Plate J4. Pupulus dettoidcs. Cottonwood. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of staminate 
catkin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Cross section 
of ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. .Mature 
fruit. 8. Seed, enlarged. 



2G8 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

service in first plantings, but our people had better plant longer- 
lived and more desirable trees mixed in with it to replace it 
when it fails. Occasionally, however, the Cottonwood can be used 
to advantage where a quick tree efifect is wanted, for where it has 
plenty of water it will make a great stately tree in a very short 
time. If one wishes to plant Cottonwood and avoid the "cot- 
ton," which is so objectionable, cuttings from the staminate tree 
only should be used, as this form produces no cotton. The 
wood of the Cottonwood is used for cheap packing cases, trays 
and bowls, for paper pulp, excelsior and for fuel. For fuel and 
lumber the wood should be dried under cover, as it decays very 
quickly when exposed to moisture. Some figures collected at 
the Minnesota Experiment Station show that on good land Cot- 
tonwood may yield as much as seven cords per acre per year 
increase. 

Yellow Cottonwood. In some sections along the Missis- 
sippi and ]\Iissouri rivers is found what is known as Yellow 
Cottonwood, which it is difficult or quite impossible to distin- 
guish from the common or White Cottonwood by any of its 
external characters, but there is a very distinct difference in the 
wood. Some good authorities have thought this difference 
associated with the sex of the trees, but this is improbable, as 
the form seems localized. 

What is known as Yellow Cottonwood lumber is highly 
esteemed for turnery and various purposes for which Tulip 
Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is used, and is manufactured in 
large quantities. It has also been used for the siding of houses 
with good results. The characters of the wood of each are 
quite clearly given in a letter recently received from the "Three 
States Lumber Co." of Cairo, 111., from which the following is 
taken: 



"The Cottonwood belt extends along the Mississippi river 
below Cairo, and there is also considerable along the Missouri 
river. The Cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley consists 
mostly of Yellow Cottonwood. This generally grows on low 
moist land, and any Cottonwood that is found growing on land 
that is subject to overflow is generally the soft yellow variety, 
known as Yellow Cottonwood. There is some White Cotton- 
wood growing in the southern part of Illinois, on high, dry 



POPLAR. 2UU 

ground. 1 1 is not possible to distinguish one from the other by 
the leaves, as in such comparison there is no difference. 

'"Yellow Cottonwood grows very round at the bottom, and 
holds to size much better than White Cottonwood. It generally 
has a thick bark: what wc term as a corrugated bark. 

"While Cottonwodd has a much tiiiiiner and softer l)ark. 
and is very apt to have a heavy spur root at the bottom. Wc 
mean by that it is liable to grow up somewhat flat-sided and 
ridged near the bottom of the trees. This is somewhat similar 
to the growth of oak. 

"Yellow Cottonwood will saw up very smooth, is soft and ten- 
der, and must be handled very carefully after being manufactured 
into lumber in order to prevent the splitting of the boards or 
their ends. It will dress out through a planer with a very 
smooth surface, and will break off square. It will also take a 
very nice polish after being surfaced. 

"White Cottonwood is tough and stringy, is very hard on 
saws in manufacturing, and will sometimes bend almost double 
before it will break, and after breaking the ends will be rough. 

"A White Cottonwood board put through a planer will not 
dress out smooth the entire surface, but there will be more or 
less spots that are fuzzy and rough, which is a serious objec- 
tion to the consumer, as it will not take an even polish. A 
White Cottonwood board exposed to the sun will also warp 
and twist to a much greater extent than a Yellow Cottonwood 
board. 

"Yellow Cottonwood lumber is not strictly yellow, consider- 
ing it from a color standpoint, nor is it strictly white. There 
is a tinge in the lumber which impresses you as different from 
a White Cottonwood board, which to the eye is very distinct." 

/ 'arictics. — 

Populus deltoides aurea. (/'. I'o/ o',r///, A'a/7,y.} Gold- 
enleaf Cottonwood. 

This variety of the Cottonwood is very desirable on account 
of the bright yellow leaves on the new growth in summer. 
It grows freely, and in Minnesota has proved as healthy as the 
species. It is valuable for occasional use to give variety to wind- 
breaks, and is said to be more largely planted in Europe for 
park decoration than any other American tree. 



270 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Populus nigra. Black Poplar. 

Leaves broadly triangular, sometimes with tapering or 
rounded base, smaller, less deeply toothed and shorter in propor- 
tion to their width than those of the Cottonwood, which they 
resemble; leaf stock flattened. The tree has generally a pyramidal 
habit of growth and dark foliage. It is less lustrous than the 
Cottonwood, and grows more slowly. This is probably the tree 
known in some localities as Norway Poplar or Norway Cotton- 
wood. What has been sent out under the name of Populus 
bctulifolia is probably a form of this species. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. "It must now, however, 
be regarded as naturalized in this country, having become 
thoroughly established in many localities." 

Propagation. — Almost entirely by cuttings in this country. 
Properties of ivood. — Light, soft, compact, not strong. Specific 
gravity of air-dried wood 0.45. 

j. Uses. — The Black Poplar and its several varie- 

ii ties are used for shade and ornamental trees 

' "^ where a quick efifect is needed. The wood is 

used for cheap packing cases, crates and for light 

., fuel. In pharmacy the buds are used for preserv- 

. . ing fats. 

j'filt ' Varieties. — 

"/ wjj a Populus nigra italica. 

'H^?'' I/ombardy Poplar. 

*«^ A common tree with upright branches, 

1^ making a very straight columnar growth, and 

a.Jl^; on this account very conspicuous. Leaves small 

and generally with a more tapering base than 
Lombardy the species. This is one of the characteristic 
Poplar. trees of Italy. Its common name is derived from 

Lombardy, one of the provinces of Italy. The tree is supposed 
to be a native of Persia and Asia Minor. Its peculiar form gives 
the landscape a crude look where it is much used. Single speci- 
mens, however, may be occasionally planted to advantage to 
give variety to shelter belts. It is hardy in moist soil, and on 
our average prairie soil makes a good growth while young, but 
soon becomes ragged in the top, and loses some of its branches 
and occasionally dies. When it becomes ragged in appearance 



POPLAR. 271 

it should bo cut back, as it will then often renew itself. The 
tree is generally shortlived in this section. It does not afford 
shade enough for a forest or shade tree, and does not make a 
good windbreak. 

Populus alba. White Poplar. SiUerleaf.. 

Leaves rnundish. slightly heart-shaped, wavy toothed or 
lobed; the under surface, woolly white, especially early in the 
season. Branches round, without angles; buds small. A large 
spreading tree of rapid growth, very much disposed to sucker 
from the rdot. It has given rise to many varieties, that differ 
from the species in form of tree and leaf and in other particulars. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia Minor; naturalized in the 
United States. 

Propagation. — By cuttings and suckers. 

Prof^crtics of wood. — White, soft, light, close grained and easily 
worked. Specific gravity of air-dried wood 0.48. 

Uses. — The White Poplar is seldom planted, as it is not so 
ornamental as some of the varieties. It is a very hardy tree, but . 
is occasionally killed back in very trying locations. It is well 
adapted to planting in shelter belts where its suckering habit is 
not a drawback to its presence. The wood is adapted to inside 
finishing and to many of the purposes for which White Pine is 
used. "It is probable that we have no tree with valuable wood 
tiiat will reach saw log size on our prairie soils as soon as this." 

Varieties. — 

Populus alba nivea. {P.ai-gentea, Koch.) Snowy Poplar. 

This is the commonest form of the White Poplar in this 
country. It is known by the snow-white under surface of its 
foilage and the three to five-lobed maple-like leaf. It is some- 
times wrongly called Silver Maple, from the resemblance of its 
foliage to that of a maple. The foliage is so very obtrusive 
that it is likely to be used too frequently in lawn plantings. It 
may, however, be used sparingly to good purpose to brighten 
up groups of trees and shrubbery which present too gloomy 
an aspect. It should seldom, if ever, be used as a street tree as 
masses of it seem to be out of harmony with every good thing in 
the landscape. In closely settled communities the down on the 
leaves often becomes filled with soot and gives the tree a dirty 
appearance. Plardy everywhere, and easily grown from cuttings. 



272 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



.-..ai'i^ 




Plate 25. Populus alba. White Poplar. 

I. Flowering branch from staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. 
Flowering branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Scale of 
staminate catkin, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 5. Sum- 
mer branch, one-half natural size. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural 
size. 7. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 8. Seedling. 



POPLAR. 273 



Populus alba canescens. Silver Poplar. 

This differs Iroiii the above in having leaves broad or nearly 
circnlar in general outline, notched but not lobcd, but like it in 
tliat tlio leaves and young shoots are downy. 

Populus alba bolleana. Bolle Poplar. 

A form nf the White Poplar of the same narrow upright 
habit of growth as the Lombardy Poplar 
Leaves somewhat deeper lobed but with the 
same cottony covering. It differs from the 
common White Poplar in that it does not 
sucker from the root and is more difficult to 
propagate from cuttings, which require to be 
calloused before planting. It is striking in 
aspect, and should be used sparingly in orna- 
mental planting. 




Figure 57. ]>caf 
Bolle Poplar. 
,.ne-third natural - . . 

size. Certinensis Poplar. 



of Bolle Poplar Populus laurifolia. (/'. ct-r/ifn-ns/s.) 

One-third natural ^ 



Leaves on the old wood or slow growing twigs are very dif- 
ferent from those on vigorous growing shoots. The former are 
broadly oval, with finely serrate margins and on cylindrical 
twigs. The strong shoots are deeply angled or grooved, and 
the foliage on them is wavy in outline. The trees are some- 
times confounded with the Cottonwood, from which they arc 
very distinct, especially in the leaves, which arc on shorter more 
rigid petioles. A large tree of rapid growth. 

Distribution. — Introduced from Russia. Probably a native of 
northern Europe and Siberia. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from cuttings. 

Properties of zuood. — Light, soft, easily worked and reported 
as being valuable for many of the purposes for which pine tim- 
ber is commonly used. 

i'ses. — The Certinensis Poplar has been tried largely in this 
section, and has proved to be a good, quick-growing tree for 
prairie planting. In some localities, however, it has been in- 
fested with a borer which has occasionally done much injury, 
. 18 



274 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

and led to the impression that it is not so hardy as the Cotton- 
wood. The foliage seems to resist the attacks of the leaf fungus 
better than the Cottonwood. 



BETULACEAE. BIRCH FAMILY. 

Genus BBTUI/A. 

Flowers monoecious, apetalous, appearing before or with the 
leaves; the staminate in long pendulous catkins; stamens two; 
the pistillate in erect cylindrical catkins; ovary naked, two- 
celled. Fruit a small nut, surrounded by a wing and covered 
by the enlarged scale of the catkin, ripening in autumn. Leaves 
alternate, simple, dentate or serrate. Trees or shrubs with 
watery juice. A large genus represented by many species. 
The bark contains a resinous balsamic oil sometimes used in 
tanning leather. In parts of this country and Canada the bark 
and leaves of various birches are esteemed as domestic reme- 
dies for diseases of the skin, for rheumatism and gout. An oil 
obtained from the inner bark by distillation is also used ex- 
ternally for the same purpose. The sweet sap of many species 
is used as a beverage, and is sometimes made into wine. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which should be sown when gathered 
or stratified over winter and sown in the spring and the seed- 
lings given some shade during the first season. The varieties 
are propagated by budding, grafting and inarching on the parent 
species. 

Betula papyrifera. Paper Birch. Canoe Birch. White 
Birch. 

Leaves ovate or heart-shaped, dark green on the upper side. 
The bark is reddish on the twigs under four or five years old 
and white on the older branches and trunk, and readily sep- 
arated into papery sheets. A good sized tree, frequently sixty 
or seventy feet high, with a trunk from two to three feet in 
diameter, or perhaps in severe locations dwarfted to a mere 
shrub. 

Distribittioii.— Throughout Canada to Arctic Ocean ("Widest 
range of any Canadian tree"), south to northern Pennsylvania, 



RIRCH. 



275 




Plate 26. Belula papyrtfera. Paper Birch. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Lateral branch, showing 
unfolding leaves, stipules and pistillate catkins, one-half natural size. 3. 
Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Scale of staminate catkin, rear 
view, enlarged. 5. Staminate flower, enlarged. 6. Stamen, enlarged. 7. 
Scale, bearing pistillate flowers. 8. Scale of fruiting catkin. 9. Nut, en- 
larged. ID. Longitudinal section of fruit. 



270 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

central Michigan and northern Nebraska and northwestern 
Washington. In Minnesota generally common in all but the 
southwestern part of the state. 

Propagation. — See genus Betula. 

Properties of wood. — Light, strong, liard, tough and very close 
grained, but not durable. It is light brown tinged with red, 
with thick nearly white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5955; 
weight of a cubic foot 37.11 pounds. 

Uses. — The Paper Birch is a tree of good form and pretty 
habit. It is especially beautiful in the spring when the young 
leaves are imfolding, and in the winter is valuable for the con- 
trast afforded by its white bark with other plants. It lends 
variety to windbreaks and lawn plantings. Prefers a moist 
soil, but does well on any retentive soil, and is perfectly hardy. 
The wood is largely used in the making of spools and bobbins, 
clothes pins, bread boards, rolling pins, wood screws, and shoe 
pegs, in the manufacture of wood pulp and for fuel. It is one 
of the very few woods that burn well when green. It decays 
quickly, and should always be cured under cover. The Indians 
of the north employ it for their sleds and paddles, the frames of 
their snow shoes and handles of their hatchets. Birch is also 
used for flooring, veneers, moldings, furniture. The knots and 
gnarled roots are turned into door knobs and fancy articles. 
The tough, resinous, durable bark of this tree is impervious 
to water, and readily separated into layers. It is used by the 
Indians for covering their canoes and houses, and for making 
baskets, drinking cups, etc. 

Betula alba. European White Birch. 

Leaves small, somewhat triangular and tapering, very smooth 
and glossy. Stem and older branches chalky white; new 
growth with reddish or dark brown bark. It closely resembles 
the Paper Birch. 

Distribution. — Native of northern Europe and Asia, and is be- 
coming naturalized in localities in the United States. 

Propagation. — See genus Betula. 

Properties of zvood. — Fairly heavy, moderately hard, does not 
split well, not durable. Specific gravity, air dried, 0.64. 

Uses. — The European White Birch is used here for orna- 
mental plantings, the same as the Paper Birch, though it is a 



BIRCH. 



277 



smaller tree. In Russia the bark is used in .the tanning of 
leather, for its i)reservative cjualitics and delightful odor. Many 
parts of the tree are used in pharmacy. 

Varieties. — There is a large number of cultivated varieties of 
the European White Birch, among which the following is the 
most highly esteemed. 



Betula alba pendula laciniata. 
Birch. 



Cutleaf Weeping 



This is a very handsome tree, with finely divided leaves and 
a drooping habit to the smaller branches. Desirable for lawn 

and park planting in retentive 
moist soil, but is very short-lived 
in dry locations. 




Betula nigra. 

Red Birch. 



River Birch. 



Leaves broadly ovate, acute or 
obtuse at apex, wedge-shaped at 
base, irregularly serrate or some- 
what lobed; when mature dark 
green and glabrous above, pale 
and glabrous or tomentose be- 
neath. Flowers open in early 
spring; staminate catkins mostly 
clustered in twos or threes, two 
and one-half to three and one- 
third inches long; pistillate cat- 
kins soft downy, oblong, cylindri- 
cal; catkins in fruit one to one 
and one-half inches long and about one-half inch in diameter; 
fruiting bracts tomentose. about equally lobed; not broadly 
ovate and wider than its wings, pubescent at its base; bark red- 
dish brown. Sometimes a large tree, but very often made up 
of spreading stems, forming a low, bushy tree. 

Distribution. — Massachusetts to Minnesota and south to Flor- 
ida and Texas, where it attains its largest size. Generally found 
along river banks and in moist places. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which ripen in June, and should be 
sown at once, making plants eight to ten inches high by autumn. 



Figure 58. Leaf of Cut 
leaf Birch. One-half natural 
size. 



278 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Properties of wood. — Light, rather hard, strong and close 
grained. It is light brown, with lighter colored sapwood. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.5762; weight of a cubic foot 35.91 pounds. 

Uses. — The River Birch is seldom used as an ornamental 
tree, although it is very beautiful and does well in any good 
retentive soil. The wood is used for furniture, cabinet making, 
wooden shoes, ox yokes and in turnery. 

Betttla lutea. Yellow Birch. Gray Birch. 

Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, wedge shaped or slightly heart 
shaped at the base. Bark of trunk yellowish gray and somewhat 
silvery, separating into thin layers and hanging loosely coiled 
up in rolls, giving old trunks a very ragged appearance. Fruit- 
ing catkins short, oblong. The inner bark, twigs and leaves 
spicy, aromatic, similar to wintergreen, but much less so than 
B. lenta. A large and very valuable timber tree. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland to the valley of the Rainy 
river, and south to North Carolina and Tennessee. In Minne- 
sota common in woods in north half of the state and rare in the 
western and southwestern portion. 

Propagation.- — See genus Bctula. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and close 
grained, with a satiny surface that takes a fine polish; it is light 
brown tinged with red, with thin white sapwood. Specific grav- 
ity 0.6553; weight of a cubic foot 40.84 pounds. 

Uses. — The wood of the Yellow Birch is one of the most valu- 
able of our northern woods, and is sometimes termed American 
Mahogany. It is largely used in the manufacture of fine furni- 
ture, the hubs of wheels, and for small wooden articles such as 
clothes pins, pill boxes, shoe pegs, tool handles, tripods, and 
also for keels for ships. As fuel it is much superior to Paper 
Birch. The bark is used to some extent for tanning purposes. 
The volatile oil used for imparting the flavor of Birch to can- 
dies, soda water, etc., is derived to some extent from this species 
though mostly from the Sweet Birch (5. lenla.) It requires a 
cold, moist soil to develop its best form, and suffers severely 
from drouth. On this account it is not desirable as an orna- 
mental tree or for prairie planting. 



BIRCH. 



279 




Plate 2-j. Betula lutca. Yellow Birch. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminatc (lower, en- 
larged. 3. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half nat- 
ural size. 5. Nut, enlarged. 6. Scale of Iruiting catkin, enlarged. 7. Win- 
ter branch, .showing stamina'e catkin, one-half natural size. 



280 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus AI^NUS. 

A seniis comprising five species in the Northern States, two 
of which are in Minnesota. Flowers monoecions. both kinds 
in catkins pendulous when expanded. Apetalous. calj'x usually 
four-parted. Fruit a wincjed or wingless minute flat nut. ■ Flow- 
ers appearing before, with or after the leaves. The species here 
referred to is one of the smaller and least valuable of the genus. 
The Alnus gluiinosa of Europe makes a large timber tree, grow- 
ing to the height of seventy feet, and Alnus oregona of the Pa- 
cific slope sometimes attains a height of eighty feet and a diam- 
eter of three feet. The specius of Alnus produce soft, straight- 
grained wood which soon decays, but is of great durability 
when placed underground or in water. In some places it is 
largely grown for making charcoal, which is used for inferior 
kinds of gunpowder. Bowls and other domestic utensils are 
also made of its wood. The bark and cones are astringent, 
and are used in tanning leather and in medicine. 

Alnus incana. Speckled or Hoary Alder. 

Leaves oval or ovate, finely dentate, dark green above, pale 
or glaucous, with some pubescens beneath, veins prominent on 
lower surface. Catkins appearing much before the leaves; 
staminate catkins conspicuous in autumn and winter, one and 
one-half to three inches when unfolded; pistillate catkins about 
one-half inch long when expanded, but are protected in buds 
during winter. The fruit is a small cone, and opens in autumn 
and early winter, and generally remains on the tree until spring. 
The seed is flat, roundish, with a hard margin. A shrub or 
small tree eight to twenty-five feet high. 

Distribution. — Newfoundland west to the Rocky Mountains 
and throughout Canada, south to Nebraska and Pennsylvania. 
Also in Europe and Asia. Generally found in moist places. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of wood. — Light, soft, brittle, not strong. 

Uses.- — Seldom used in this country for any purpose, but the 
wood is undoubtedly of value for charcoal for the manufacture 
of inferior kinds of gunpowder. As a shrub for use in land- 
scape gardening in wet places it is of some value. 



ALDER. 



281 




Mate 



/Hints incana. Speckk-d or lluary Alder. 



1. A fruiting mature branch, one-half natural size. 2. A flowering 
branch, one-hall natural size. 3. i'istillate hower and scale, front view, 
enlarged. 4. A siaminaie Hower, enlarged. 5. Scale ot a staminate catkin, 
rear view, enlarged. 6. A nut. 7. Scale ot a cone. 



282 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus OSTRYA. 

Flowers monoecious, apetalous; the staminate naked in long 
pendulous catkins; the pistillate in erect loose catkins; ovary 
two-celled, inferior, surrounded by small deciduous bracts and 
each inclosed in a sac-like involucre which grows and forms a 
sort of cluster, like that of the common hop. Leaves alternate. 
Only one species comes within our range. 

Ostrya virginiana. Hornbeam. Ironwood. Hop Horn- 
beam. 

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, very sharply and 
doubly serrate, green above and downy beneath. Flowers 
minute, appearing with the leaves. Seed in short imbricated 
catkin-like clusters, ripe in August but hanging on into late 
autumn; nut one-fourth to one-third of an inch long. Bark 
on old trees dark brown and furrowed, not smooth as in Car- 
pinus. A handsome tree, generally small, but occasionally a 
foot or more in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Cape Breton to northern Minnesota and 
Black Hills of Dakota and south to northern Florida and east- 
ern Texas. In Minnesota common throughout the timbered 
portions of the state except close to the shore of Lake Superior. 

Propagation. — Generally grown from seeds, but may be grown 
from layers or grafts. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and tough, ex- 
ceedingly close grained, durable in contact with the soil and 
susceptible of a fine polish. It is light brown tinged with red, 
or ofter nearly white with thick pale sapwood. Specific gravity 
0.8284; weight of a cubic foot 51.62 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hornbeam is a very beautiful, hardy tree, and is 
occasionally used for ornamciual purposes, for umbrella sticks 
and canes, but on account of its rather slow growth it is not 
generally desirable for this purpose. The wood is used for 
fence posts, levers, mallets, handles of tools, and medicinally in 
homeopathic practice. 



HORNBEAM. 



283 




Plate 29. Ostrya vii'giniana. 



Hornbeam. 



I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Scale of staminate cat- 
kin, enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Diagram of pistillate inllorescence. 
5. Scale ot pistillate catkin, enlarged. 6. Pibtillate flower enclosed in bract 
and bractleis, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Lon- 
gitudinal section ol fruiting involucre, showing nut, one-half natural size. 
9. Longitudinal section ot nut, natural size. 



284 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus CARPINUS. 

Tall, slender trees or small shrubs. About twelve species in 
the northern hemisphere, only one of which is indigenous to 
North America. 

Carpinus caroliniana. Blue Beech. Water Beech. 
Hornbeam. 

Leaves ovate, oblong, sharply serrate, pale blue-green on 
upper surface and light yellow-green on the lower, smooth and 
thin, two and one-half to four inches long, resembling those 
of the common Beech. Flowers monoecious, appearing with 
the leaves; the staminate in rather dense catkins and the pistil- 
late in small slender loose catkins with a three-lobed bracelet 
to each seed. Fruit in loose clusters at the ends of the new 
growth, with large three-lobed bracts to the involucre, ripening 
late in the autumn. The nut is one-sixth to one-third of an 
inch long. Shrubs or trees twenty or more feet high, with 
smooth, grayish bark and stems often deeply furrowed. 

Distribution. — From southwestern Quebec westward to north- 
ern ]\Iinnesota and eastern Nebraska and south to Florida and 
Texas. Also found in southern Mexico and Central America. 
In Minnesota common throughout the south half of the state, 
along streams and around lakes. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which grow irregularly. The varie- 
ties may be grafted or budded on seedling stocks. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, very strong, hard and close 
grained; light brown, with thick, nearly white sapwood. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.7286; weight of a cubic foot 45.41 pounds. 

Uses. — The graceful habit, dark blue-green foliage and beauti- 
ful autumn tints of the Blue Beech make it a desirable tree for 
parks and lawns on good soil in somewhat sheltered situations. 
The wood is so very tough that it was used by the early settlers 
in the northern states for brooms, ox-gads, withes, etc. The 
toughest wood of our northern forests. 



BLUE BEECH. 



285 




Plate 30. Carpiuus caroiliaiia. Blue Beech. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Scale of staminate cat- 
kin, enlarged. 3. Stamen, enlarged. 4. Scale of pistillate catkin, enlarged. 
5. Pistillate flower with bract and bractlets. enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, 
one-half natural size. 7. Nut with involucre, one-half natural size. 8. 
Xut, enlarged. 9. Longitudinal section of nut, enlarged. 10. Winter 
branch, one-half natural size. 11. Staminate catkin in winter, enlarged. 



286 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



FAGACEAE. OAK FAMILY. 

Genus CASTANi^A. 

Trees or shrubs with watery juice and serrate straight veined 
leaves. Flowers monoecious, strong smelling, in axillary cat- 
kins near the ends of the branches, appearing after the leaves. 
The staminate flowers in erect or spreading yellowish cylindrical 
catkins; calyx mostly six-parted; stamens numerous, some- 
times with abortive ovary; filaments slender. The fertile 
flowers usually two to five in an ovoid scaly prickly involucre 
at the base of the androgynous catkins; calyx with a six-lobed 
border crowning the mostly six-celled ovary and usually with 
four to twelve abortive stamens; ovules two in each cavity, 
but only one to each ovary usually maturing; styles corre- 
sponding in number with the cavities in the ovary, slender, 
exserted; stigmas small. Involucre of fertile flowers enlarging 
and becoming globose, mostly four-valved; in fruit a thick, 
very prickly bur inclosing from one to three ovoid nuts. 
Cotyledons very thick, cohering and remaining underground in 
germination. 

Castanea dentata. Chestnut. 

Leaves oblong lanceolate, pointed, acute at base, serrate with 
coarse pointed teeth; when mature smooth and green on both 
sides. Fruit sweet and edible, ripening in autumn. A large 
forest tree with gray bark. 

Distribution. — Maine and Ontario to Delaware, Michigan, 
Tennessee and Mississippi. 

Propagation. — Most commonly by seed, which should be sown 
in autumn or stratified over winter and sown in the spring. 
The seed is very difficult to preserve in good condition for 
germination unless carefully stratified out of doors. When 
dried it soon loses its vitality and when stratified in the cellar 
is very liable to mould. The foreign sorts, of which there are 
a number in cultivation, are mostly propagated by grafting on 
the species. 

Properties of tfood.— Light, soft, not strong, coarse grained, 
liable to check and warp in drying, easily split, very durable in 



CHESTNUT 



287 







I'iate 31. Caslaiica dcntata. Chestnut. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Staminate flower, en- 
larged. 3. Diagram of pistillate flower cluster. 4. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 5. Longitudinal section of involucre ot pistillate flowers. 6. Por- 
tion of fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of 
fruit, one-half natural size. 8. Involucral spine. 9. End of young branch- 
let. 



288 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

contact with the soil, reddish brown, with thin, light colored 
sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4504; weight of a cubic foot 28.07 
pounds. 

Uses. — Within and near its range the Chestnut is an im- 
portant and very fast-growing timber tree that readily renews 
itself from sprouts from the roots. As an ornamental tree it 
is highly esteemed wherever it is hardy. In this section it is 
not sufficiently hardy to warrant any extensive planting of it, 
but has held on well for twenty years in Houston county, where 
are found thrifty trees eight inches in diameter and forty feet 
high at the home of Mr. J. S. Harris. In the forest plantation 
at the Minnesota Experiment Station the young trees are doing 
very well. 

The wood is used in the manufacture of cheap furniture, 
school globes and object forms, tool handles, kegs, for interior 
finishing of houses, for railway ties, fence posts and rails. Its 
durability is due to the large amount of tannic acid which it 
contains. An extract of the wood is largely used in tanning. 

Genus QUERCUS. 

A very large genus of about 200 species, which are not 
always clearly defined. The four here described are nearly dis- 
tinct, but there are great variations in the species, and many 
undoubted hybrids. Flowers greenish or yellowish, monoeci- 
ous; the staminate in slender naked catkins, each flower con- 
sisting of a four to seven-parted or lobed calyx and four to 
twelve stamens; the pistillate flowers scattered or somewhat 
clustered, each consisting of a nearly three-celled, six-ovuled, 
inferior ovary with a three-lobed stigma and inclosed by a 
scaly bud-like involucre, which becomes the hardened cup 
(cupule) around the base of the fruit, which is a rounded one- 
celled nut or acorn. Cotyledons remain underground in germ- 
ination. All our species flower in the spring and shed their 
acorns in the autumn of the same or following year. This 
genus is readily divided into the White Oak and the Black 
O^ classes. 

The White Oak class is characterized by leaves with rounded 
lobes, teeth that are never bristle pointed; edible acorns ma- 
turing the first year, inner surface of shell glabrous; wood 
hard, close grained, durable; tree with deep permanent tap root. 



OAK. 2S() 

The Black Oak class is characterized by leaves havins; acute 
lobes and bristle-pointed teeth; acorns bitter, maturing the 
second year, inner surface of shell of acorn woolly; wood por- 
ous and brittle; roots spreading, seldom having clearly defined 
tap roots except when young. 

Oak bark is used for tanning leather. The cork of com- 
merce is the older bark of the Oucrcus subcr of southern Europe. 
Galls caused by insects puncturing the young and tender shoots 
are produced on the branches of most oak trees, and are im- 
ported in large quantities from Asia Minor, China and else- 
where to be used in the manufacture of inks and dyes. The 
bark of most species is tonic and astringent, and as a decoction 
is sometimes employed as an external remedy. 

Oak is in general use for ship and car building, general con- 
struction, canoes, carriages and wagons, furniture and finish- 
ing, school apparatus, billiard tables, cooperage, gunstocks, 
drawing instruments, pumps, cheese boxes, basket work, um- 
brella sticks and canes. 

Propagation. — All the species grow readily from seeds which 
have been kept properly, but if allowed to get dry they arc 
liable to lose their vitality. The seedlings have tap roots often 
three to four feet long when the top is not more than a foot 
high. On this account the trees are often very difficult and un- 
certain to transplant, but if the tap roots are cut of? a foot from 
the surface of the ground when the trees are one year old they 
form side roots and then may be moved with a reasonable 
degree of certainty within the next few years before they have 
formed new tap roots. 

Quercus alba. White Oak. 

Leaves short petiolcd, oblong or obovatc in outline, obliquely 
cut into three to nine oblong or linear and obtuse mostly entire 
lobes, smooth excepting when young, pale or glaucous imder- 
neath, bright green above, turning to a soft wine color in 
autumn. Fruit an edible acorn maturing the first year, hence 
borne on the shoot of the season, three-fourths to one inch 
long, oblong, often peduncled, not more than one-third covered 
by the hemispherical saucer-shaped naked cup which is rough 
or tubercled at maturity. A noble and picturesque tree some- 
times attaining a height of lOO feet w'th a trunk six feet in di- 
ameter, but nnu'li sniallor within our range. Its bark is rough, 
19 



290 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




riate 32. Qucrcus alba. White Oak. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Portion of a staminate 
catkin, enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Cluster of pistillate 
llowers, enlarged. 5. Cross section of ovary, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, 
one-half natural size. 7. Cup, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal sec- 
tion ot acorn, one-half natural size. 9. A germinated acorn, one-half natur- 
al size. 



OAK. . 291 

with longitudinal fissures and of a whitish gray color, whence 
its name. It is also conspicuous from its holding many of its 
dead withered leaves until nearly spring, and in this respect it 
differs from the Bur Oak, to which it is closely allied but which 
sheds all its leaves in autumn. 

Distribution. — From southern Maine westward through On- 
tario to southern and central Minnesota and eastern Kansas, 
south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota fre(|uent in the 
southeastern and central parts of the state. 

Propagation. — The acorns of the White Oak naturally start 
into growth in the first of autumn, and often form roots several 
inches long by the time the ground freezes. In consequence of 
this there is but a short time in which to sow them, and this 
should be done as soon as they can be gathered in autumn or 
if planted later great pains must be taken not to break the 
radicle which will probably have pushed out. The seeds require 
only ordinary care to secure a good stand if properly managed. 

Properties of wood. — Strong, very heavy, hard, tough, close 
grained, durable in contact with soil although liable to check 
unless carefully seasoned; color light brown with thin light 
brown sapwood. Specific gravity 0.747; weight of a cubic foot 
4635 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Oak is highly esteemed as an ornamental 
tree on account of its sturdiness, longevity and magnificent 
spreading form, although it is seldom planted on account of 
its slow growth; one of our hardiest trees, although it will not 
endure as much drouth as the P.ur Oak or White Elm. The 
wood is of great value on account of its adaptability to many 
purposes where a tough, strong, close grained wood is needed. 
It is largely used in ship building, in construction, in cooper- 
age, for casks, barrels, kegs, tubs, pails and measures (large 
quantities being exported to Europe in the form of staves), in 
the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages and 
baskets, for flooring and the interior finishing of houses, in furni- 
ture and cabinet making, tool handles and for railway ties, fence 
posts and fuel. 

Quercus platanoides. Swamp White Oak. 

Leaves obovate or oblong-obovate, coarsely sinuately toothed 
or sometimes lobed, dark green above and usually densely 
white-tomentose beneath, except on foliage that is nuioh shaded. 



292 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 33. Oucrcus plalanoides. Swamp White Oak. 

I. Staniinate inflorescence, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate inflores- 
cence and young branch, one-half natural size. 3. A leaf grown in the 
shade. 4. A fruiting branch, reduced. 



OAK. 293 

Fruit usually in pairs and matures the first year; b(irne on 
slender erect peduncles from one and one-half to two and one- 
half inches long. The rather deep cup incloses about one-third 
of the acorn, which is oblong-oval in form and about one inch 
long. Bark, gray, flaky, especially on young trees or branches. 
A large tree, attaining commonly a height of about seventy 
feet in this section, with a diameter of three or four feet. Easily 
recognized by the flaky bark of the young growth and the small 
dwarfed, twisted and generally pendulous branches, which often 
occur on the larger limbs and trunk. 

Distribution. — From Maine to Minnesota and Missouri, and 
from Ontario south to northern Kentucky and Arkansas, where 
it is generally found along the borders of streams and swamps, 
in moist, fertile soil. 

Propagation. — By seed, as for white oak. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong and tough; liable to 
check badly in seasoning. Color light brown, with sapwood of 
about the same shade. Durable in contact with the soil. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.7662; weight of a cubic foot 4775- 

Uses. — The Swamp White Oak is excellent for carriage build- 
ing, cooperage, agricultural implements, railway ties, fence posts, 
cabinetmaking, interior finish of houses and for fuel. 

Quercus macrocarpa. Bur Oak. Mossy Cup Oak. Bur 
White Oak. 

Leaves large, ovate or oblong, lyrate-pinnatifid or deeply 
sinuatc-lobed or parted, the lobes sparingly toothed or entire, 
irregular, downy or pale beneath and bright green above, turn- 
ing to a dull yellow before falling in autumn. Cup (cupulc) 
deep, thick, woody, conspicuously imbricated with hard, thick 
pointed scales, the upper ones generally awned so as to make 
a mossy, fringed border, but this is occasionally lacking. 
Acorns ovoid, almost spherical, half or wholly inclosed by the 
cup. Bark rougher and darker colored than that of the White 
Oak. A large tree, varying greatly in form, sometimes growing 
100 feet high and six or seven feet through the trunk, but in 
this section seldom over seventy feet high and three feet 
through. 

Distribution. — From New Brunswick and Nova Scotia west- 
ward to Manitoba, Montana and Kansas, and southwestward to 



294 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




I'late 34. Queicus macrocarpa. Bur Oak. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Friiiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate inflores- 
cence, enlarged. 



OAK. -•'•> 

Tennessee, Indian Territory and Texas. In Minnesota common 
or abundant in all except the extreme northeastern part. 

Propagation. — Very easily srown from seeds planted in au- 
tumn. The seedlings in c:;ood prairio soil attain a heit^ht of 
about four feet in five years. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, rather brittle, coarse 
grained and very durable in contact with the soil; color, rich 
brown with much lighter brown sapwood. Specific gravity 
07453; weight of a cubic foot 46.45 pounds. 

Uscs.—T\it Bur Oak is the most magnificent, most durable 
and longest lived tree for planting throughout this whole sec- 
tion. It is also one of the most valuable timber trees of North 
America. Although its wood is rather coarser grained and in- 
ferior in strength to that of the White Oak, with which it is 
commercially confounded, yet it is used for the same purposes. 

Quercus rubra. Red Oak. 

Leaves oblong-obovate to oblong, moderately sometimes 
deeply pinnatifid with rounded sinuses, seven to nine narrow 
lobes, these and the teeth being bristle pointed; mature leaves 
rather thin, turning dark red after frost in autumn. Cup saucer- 
shaped or flat, with a narrow raised border of fine scales, sessile 
or on a very short stalk, very much shorter than the acorn, 
which is oblong-ovoid or turgid-ovoid, one incli or less in 
length, with a bitter kernel. Two years are required to ripen 
the nut, which is consequently found on the old wood below 
the leaves of the season. Bark smoother than that of most 
oaks. A tree seventy to eighty or more feet high, with a trunk 
three or four feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia to the divide west of Lake 
Superior and to central Kansas, south to Georgia and Ten- 
nessee. In ^Minnesota found along the Mississippi river and 
occasionally in other parts, but is not very common anywhere 
in the state. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from fall sown seeds. 

Properties of H'ood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained and 
liable to check badly in drying. Specific gravity 0.6621; weight 
of a cubic foot, 41.25 pounds. 

C^,sc,y.— The Red Oak has been used to a limited extent in this 
country and Europe as an ornamental tree, for which its stately 



290 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




riale 35. QuercKS rubra. Ked (Jak. 

I. Flowering branch showing in':mature fruit ot one year's growth, one- 
half natural size. 2. Staimnate flower, enlarged. 3. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 4. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section 
of fruit, one-half natural size. 6. Cup, one-half natural size. 7. Mature 
leaf, one-half natural size. 



OAK. 297 

form, vigorous growth and fine autumn coloring make it es- 
pecially desirable. No oak of the Northern States is more 
easily transplanted. The wood, which in trade is not distin- 
guished ffom that of the Scarlet Oak, is used for interior finish- 
ing, furniture and in construction, and has a beautiful grain for 
finishing. It is often used for fuel, but is generally though not 
universally considered much inferior to the White Oak for this 
purpose. 

Quercus coccinea. Scarlet Oak. Black Oak. 

Leaves oblong or obovate, deeply pinnatifid with broad 
rounded sinuses and slender lobes divergent and divided at the 
apex into several teeth which are bristle-pointed. When the 
leaves unfold they are bright red and covered with pubescence, 
but towards maturity they become shining green and generally 
glabrous above, the lower side in this section often furnished 
with tufts of hair in the axils of the veins. The leaves turn a 
brilliant red or scarlet in autumn, remain on the trees in this 
section all winter and fall in the spring. The buds are often 
slightly pubescent, and are smaller and very dififercnt from the 
large tomentose buds of Quercus vclutina. The fruit, which 
ripens in the autumn of the second year, is sessile, or on a stalk 
which is sometimes an inch long. It is oval or globular ovoid, 
with a bitter kernel. A common and often large tree in this 
section, where it is generally termed Black Oak, and is found 
on gravelly ridges and sandv land interspersed with Bur and 
Red Oak. 

Distribution. — From ]\Iaine to the District of Columbia and 
west to Minnesota and Nebraska. 

Propagation. — By fall-sown seeds. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained, light 
or reddish brown with thick darker colored sapwood. Specilic 
gravity 0.7C95; weight of a cubic foot 42.20 pounds. 

Uses. — The Scarlet Oak is not planted to so great an extent 
as the Red Oak for ornamental purposes, but is fully as desir- 
able because of its beautiful scarlet autumn coloring and rapid 
growth. The wood is largely used in the manufacture of furni- 
ture, for interior finishing and for fuel, and is not distinguished 
commercially from that of Red Oak. 



Ids 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 36. Oiicrcus coccinca. Scarlet Oak. 

\. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Pistillate flower cluster, 
enlarged. 3. Staminate flower, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. 
Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Acorn, one-half natural size. 



ELM. -"•'!» 



ULMACEAE. ELM FAMILY. 

Genus UIvMUS. 

Leaves simple, allcrnalc, two-ranked, short pctioled. strai.i^ht 
veined, usually rather rough. Flowers appear before the. leaves 
in our species; perfect or rarely polygamous, apetalous, grcen- 
isli, in lateral clusters: calyx four to nine lobed; stamens four 
to nine with long slender filaments; ovary superior, one-celled 
or rarely two-celled, flattened; styles two, short and diverging. 
Fruit a samara with a broad membranous margin, one-celled, 
one-seeded, ripens in early summer; seed all embryo. A genus 
of about fifteen widely distributed species, which are mostly 
large deciduous trees, three of which occur in our range. Most 
of the elms produce hard, tough wood, that is often difficult to 
split. The European species have given rise to many varieties 
differing from the parent species in many ways, but chiefly in 
habit of growth and color of foliage. A form of the European 
Scotch Elm {U. Montana) with pendulous habit, known in nur- 
series as Camperdown Weeping Elm, has done very well in a 
somewhat protected location at the Minnesota Experiment Sta- 
tion, and bids fair to make a very ornamental specimen. The 
stock on which it is worked (probably U. campestris), however, 
has sunscalded. In China a white mucilaginous meal is made 
from the inner bark of the Elm, and is used as food by the 
mountaineers of the northern provinces and in the composition 
of incense sticks. The fruit is employed in medicine, and the 
bark and young fruits are eaten in periods of severe famine. 

Prof'agation. — The species are grown from seeds and the 
varieties by layers, budding, and grafting. With the exception 
of the Slippery Elm (q. v.) the seeds should be sown as soon 
as gathered. 

Ulmus americana. White ^Elni. American Elm. Water 
Elm. 

Leaves three to four inches long, obovate-oblong to oval, 
usually smooth on the upper and soft and velvety on the lower 
surface, coarsely and doubly serrate, taper-pointed, turning to 
a bright yellow before falling. Branches small, slender, ascend- 
ing, at length spreading and pendulous; twigs and buds smooth, 



yw 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 37. Ulmtis amerkana. White Elm. 

1. Portion of fcummer brancli, one-half natural size. 2. Flowering 
branch, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natin-al size. 
4. Portion of winter branch, one-half natural size. 5. Flower, enlarged. 
6. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of 
pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 9. 
Lnibryo, enlarged. 10. Longitudinal section of seed, natural size. 



KLM. 301 

not corky. Flower? appear in April, in dense clusters, with 
slender drooping pedicels. Fruit ripe in May, smooth except 
the edges, which are hairy, with incurved sharp points at tlie 
apex. A large common tree, sometimes I20 feet high and six 
feet or more in diameter. This tree varies greatly in habit; 
some specimens may be quite upright in growth while others 
are very pendulous. One having the drooping habit, that was 
found in Illinois, is now offered by nurserymen. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland and along the northern 
shores of Lake Superior to the eastern base of Rocky Moun- 
tains, south to Florida and Texas and west in the United States 
to the Black Hills of Dakota and western Kansas. In Minne- 
sota common throughout the state. 

Propagation. — Described under genus Ubuus. The seeds can 
often be swept up on roadways and pavements in large quan- 
tities. 

Properties of zvood. — Very tough in young trees, light and 
moderately strong in old, difficult to split and rather coarse 
grained; color light brown, with lighter colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.6506; weight of a cubic foot 40.55 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Elm has always been the favorite shade 
and ornamental tree in the Northern States, and is the best 
street and park tree for general planting in this section. It 
is ajso one of the hardiest trees for prairie planting, and will 
perhaps withstand as great extremes of temperature and moist- 
ure as any of our shade trees. It is a rapid and often strag- 
gling grower, and should have a little attention in the way of 
pruning when young to keep it in its best form. The wood 
is largely used in the manufacture of agricultural implements, 
for hubs of wagon wheels, for saddletrees, for flooring, in coop- 
erage, for tlour and meal barrels, cheese boxes, etc. The bark 
was used by the Indians when they could not procure birch 
bark in making their canoes and houses. In some parts of 
this country the tough inner bark was formerly twisted into 
ropes. 

Ulmus racemosa. Cork 'EtXra. Kock Elm. 

Leaves ovate-oblong or obovate, taper-pointed, smooth 
above, pubescent beneath, resembling those of the White Elm, 
but less sharply serrate. Twigs and bud scales pubescent; 



302 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 







Plate 38. Uhiius racemosa. Cork Elm. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural si^e. 2. Cluster of flowers sub- 
tended by bud scale, enlarged. 3. Flower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of flower, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. 
Longitudinal section of fruit, two-thirds natural size. 7. Summer branch, 
one-half natural size. 



KLM. :^03 

branches generally with corky ridges or wings. Flowers in 
April, in open loose racemes with slender pedicels not in clus- 
ters. Fruit ripe in May, an ovate elliptical samara about three- 
fourths of an inch long, pubescent, with margins thickly fringed, 
much like the fruit of the White Elm, but somewhat larger. 
Occasionally a tree eighty to one hu: red feet high and three 
feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Quebec, Ontario, Vermont and northern 
New York west to Minnesota and south to Missouri and Ten- 
nessee. 

In Minnesota frequent in the eastern part and extending 
into the Minnesota Valley west at least to Montevideo, Chip- 
pewa county. 

Propagation. — Described under genus Ulinus. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, very strong and tough, 
close grained, susceptible of receiving a high polish, very diffi- 
cult to split. It is light brown, with yellowish or greenish 
white sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7265; weight of a cubic foot 
45-63 pounds. 

Uses. — As an ornamental tree the Cork Elm is occasionally 
used in place of the White Elm, and though a slower grower 
its great hardiness and sturdy form make it very desirable for 
park and street planting. It should be used more frequently 
than at present. The wood, having so many valuable qualities, 
is much sought for, and its extinction seems possible. It is 
largely used in the manufacture of large agricultural imple- 
ments, like plows and threshing and mowing machines, for 
beams of stump pullers, bridge timbers, piles, wagon hubs, rims 
of bicycle wheels and ax handles. For the latter purpose it is 
superior to hickory. In fact, it is superior to most other woods 
wherever great strength, toughness, solidity, flexibility and 
durability are required. 

Ulmus pubescens. [C /tthut.\ Slippery Kim. Ked 
Elm. Moose Elm. 

Leaves ovate-oblong, doubly serrate, very rough above and 
slightly rough or soft downy beneath, often four to six inches 
long, taper-pointed, trough shaped, turning to a dull yellow 
before falling, fragrant while drying. Buds before expansion 
soft, downy, large; branchlets downy. Flowers in .April, borne 



J04 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 39. Ulmus pubescens. Slippery Elm. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Fruiting branch, one-halt 
■ natural size. 3. A young winter branch with buds, one-half natural size. 
4. Winter branch, showing flower buds beginning to enlarge, one-half 
natural size. 5. Summer branch, one-half natural size. 6. Flower, en- 
larged. 7. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. S. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of pistil, enlarged. 9. Stamen, enlarged. 10. Cross section of ovary, 
enlarged. 11. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 12. Seed, 
enlarged. 13. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 14. Kmbryo, en- 
larged. 



KT.M. SOT) 

on short pedicels. Fruit in May or June, nearly circular, about 
three-fourths inch long, only slightly if at all downy. Tree 
of medium size, forty to sixty feet high, witii ri trunk occa- 
sionally two feet in diameter. 

Distribution. — From Quebec and Ontario west to North Da- 
kota and south to Florida and Texas; less common than the 
White Elm. In Minnesota frequent throughout the state ex- 
cept far nothward. 

Propagiition. — By seeds kept stratified until the spring follow- 
ing the period of ripening. Unlike the other elms, the seeds 
will not grow the same season that they mature. 

Properties of ivood. — Heavy, hard, strong, very close grained, 
durable in contact with the soil, splits as freely and easily as 
that of young chestnut. It is dark brown, with thin, light- 
colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6956; weight of a cubic 
foot 43.35 pounds. 

Uses. — In cultivation the Slippery Elm is a shapely, fast 
growing tree, well adapted to this section; not of as pretty a 
form nor as hardy in dry locations as the White or Rock Elm, 
but more valuable in home timber lots. When planted as a 
street tree, the bark is likely to be stripped off by boys. The 
trees when planted closely together grow straight and tall and 
make excellent poles for farm use. When used for posts, they 
should be cut in summer and be peeled and dried before set- 
ting. When this is done they will last a long time. The wood 
'is used for sleigh runners, the running gear of carriages, hubs 
of wheels, and in the manufacture of agricultural implements. 
It is tough when boiled or steamed, hence is one of the best 
woods for ribs of canoes and skiffs. The thick fragrant inner 
bark is soft, mucilaginous and slightly nutritious. It has been 
known to support life in case of scarcity of food. It is re- 
ported that during the last war with Great Britain the soldiers 
on the Canadian frontier found it a grateful and nutritious food 
for their horses in times of scarcity of forage. It is used in 
medicines for affections of the throat and lungs and for other 
tri>ui>les. 



20 



30C TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Genus CEI/TIS. 

Leaves alternate, simple, short petioled. Flowers monoe- 
ciously polygamous, appearing in the axils of the leaves of the 
season; the staminate in little clusters or racemes; the perfect 
flovi^ers solitary or in pairs, peduncled; styles two. Fruit a 
globular drupe; embryo curved, nearly inclosing a little gela- 
tinous albumen. Only one species in the Northern States of 
interest to us here. 

Celtis occidentalis. Hackberry. Sugarberry. Nettle 
Tree. 

Leaves quite various, but usually ovate to ovate-lancelate, 
sharply and coarsely serrate or sparingly so, taper-pointed, more 
or less rough above and unusually soft pubescent beneath, at 
least when young. Flowers appear in April and May, solitary, 
small, white, on rather long peduncles. Fruit a small, solitary, 
round, sweet edible drupe, reddish or yellowish, turning a dark 
purple when fully matured, remaining on tree into the winter; 
peduncle twice the length of the petioles. Generally a small, 
but sometimes a large tree over loo feet high and two or 
three feet in diameter. The tree resembles the White Elm, 
but the branches come out more at right angles and the bark 
is rougher and more closely divided than that of the White Elm. 

Distribution. — From Montreal west to Lake of the Woods and 
North Dakota, and south to Florida and eastern Texas. West 
of the Rocky Mountains it is rare, but occurs on banks of 
streams. It has been found in Idaho, Washington, Oregon. 
Nevada, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. In Minnesota fre- 
quent in the southern half of the state, and not uncommon in 
the valley of the Red River even near the extreme northern 
limit of the state. 

Propagation. — Easily grown from seeds, which should be 
sown as soon as ripe or stratified over winter and sown in the 
spring. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, rather soft, not strong, coarse 
grained, dark or light brown, with thick, light colored, often 
yellowish, sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7287; weight of a cubic 
foot 45.41 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hackberry is of rapid growth, and is one of the 
best trees for general park, lawn and prairie planting here. 



HACKRERRV 



307 




I'late 40. Celtis occidcnlalis. ilackbcrry. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 3. Winter twig, one-half natural size. 4. Staminatc tlowcr 
before straightening of filaments, enlarged. 5. Staminate flower, expanded, 
enlarged. 6. I'erfect flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of perfect 
flower, enlarged. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 9. Trans- 
verse section of fruit, natural size. 10. Diagram of flower. 



308 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

No deciduous tree presents a more graceful appearance in 
winter when the finely divided spray of the limbs, and the small 
size of the young growth make it very attractive. In this sec- 
tion it is preferred to the White Elm for a shade tree by some 
experienced planters. It endures drouth well, but is probably 
not as hardy in this way as the White Elm. It is also less 
liable to split in the crotches. The wood to some extent is 
used to take the place of elm, as in harness making. 



MORACEAE. MULBERRY FAMILY. 

The largest genus of this family is Ficus, which contains over 
600 known species, including the cultivated fig (Fiats carica) 
and the Indiarubber Tree {Ficus elastica). The following genus 
contains about ten species, natives of the northern hemisphere. 

Genus MORUS. 

Trees or shrubs with milky sap and alternate, dentate and 
often lobed leaves. Flowers monoecious or dioecious (rarely 
polygamous) in axillary catkin-like spikes, the pistillate spikes 
ripening into succulent aggregated fruits. Calyx four-parted, 
in the pistillate flower becoming fleshy; stamens four; pistils 
one; stigma two. 

Morus rubra. Red Mulberry. 

Leaves ovate or nearly orbicular in outline, acute or taper- 
pointed, occasionally deeply lobed, glabrous above, persistently 
pubescent beneath, or when young almost tomentose. Flowers 
appear with the unfolding of the leaves. The fruit, which is at first 
bright red, when fully grown becomes dark purple or nearly black, 
and when fully ripe is sweet, juicy and pleasant to the taste. It 
ripens in summer, and is from one to one and one-fourth inches 
long. South, it forms a large tree, with brown rough bark, 
but within our range it is a small tree or mere shrub. 

Distribution. — Vermont to Ontario, Michigan, and South Da- 
kota and south to Florida and Texas. In Minnesota it reaches 
its northern limit in the southern part of the state. 



MULBERRY. ^<>'J 

Prof'agation. — By seeds or by cuttings. 

rrofcrtics of wood. — Light, soft, not strong, rather toiif:;h, 
coarse grained, and very durable in contact with the soil. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.5898; weight of a cubic foot 36-75 pounds. 

Uses. — The Red Mulberry is sometimes used in the Middle 
and Southern States as an ornamental tree, where it forms a 
large spreading tree forty feet high. It well deserves a place 
on lawns or in parks, but is not very hardy in Minnesota. The 
wood is valued for fence posts, and is used in cooperage; in 
the Southern States it is often used in boat building. The 
inner bark is fibrous, and was used by the Indians of the South- 
ern States for making a coarse cloth; in early days this fiber 
was used for cordage. The leaves have been largely experi- 
mented with as food for silk worms, but they are not so good 
for this purpose as those of the White Mulberry {Morns alba). 

Morus alba tartarica. Russian Mulberry. 

Leaves thin, smooth, glabrous and somewhat .shining on both 
sides, heart-shaped, ovate or orbicular, generally deeply lobed 
and dentate. The same plant will often have leaves of several 
forms. Flowers appear with the leaves, generally dioecious 
or monoecious, but rarely polygamous. The fruit ripens early 
in July, and is white or purplish in color, and varies from three- 
fourths to one and one-half inches in length. As commonly 
seen it is a low-growing, very bushy-topped, small tree with 
light gray bark and spreading branches. 

Distribution. — Native of central Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds, cuttings, . layers or graftage. The 
seeds, if sown as soon as gathered, will make plants about one 
foot high the first season. 

Properties of zuood. — Probably much the same as those of the 
Red Mulberry. 

I'Ses. — The Russian Mulberry was introduced into the West- 
ern States by the Russian Mennonites, who esteem it very 
highly for its many good qualities, among which is the ease 
with which it is propagated, its rapid growth, the value of the 
leaves as food for silk worms, its fruit, ornamental appearance 
and the durability of the wood in contact with the soil. It is 
not perfectly hardy in this section, but generally holds on well 
as far north as St. Paul, although it generally kills back con- 



310 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




riate 41. Moms alba iartarica. Russian Mulberry. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower-cluster, 
enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower-cluster, natural size. 5. Staminate flower, en- 
larged. 6. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of pistil, 
enlarged. 8. Full grown lobed leaf, one-half natural size. 



MULBERRY. 311 

siderably for the first few years after planting. While it can 
be grown in tree form, it is mnch better adapted to being grown 
in this section in the form of a windbreak. It bears pruning 
well, and makes a very pretty hedge, but is not adapted to turn- 
ing cnttle. as it is unarmed. The fruit is insipid and generally 
small, but in almost every large lot of seedlings a few speci- 
mens will be found producing fruit of good size and fair 
quality. While the fruit is not marketable, it is often used 
domestically, and also furnishes a large amount oi food for 
birds just when strawberries and raspberries arc ripening, and 
is preferred by them to the more acid berries, hence aflfords 
some protection to these more important crops. Objections 
to its use in ornamental planting are its susceptibility to injury 
by late spring frosts, which blacken the new growth, and the 
early falling of the leaves in autumn. While its leaves are well 
adapted to feeding the silk worm, and have been successfully 
used for this purpose in this section in a small way, yet the 
industry has not become profitable. 

Varieties. — A variety known as Teas Weeping Mulberry has 
been partially tried at the Minnesota Experiment Station, and 
gives promise of proving sufficiently hardy for somewhat pro- 
tected places. This variety is vigorous, naturally sprawls on 
the ground, and when worked on straight stems, its very 
pendulous branches make it a very conspicuous object. Foli- 
age excellent. 



ROSACEAE. ROSE FAMILY. 

A large family of trees, shrubs and herbs, including many of 
our cultivated fruits and ornamental plants. 

Genus PYRUS. 

Leaves simple or pinnately compound, flowers white or 
rose colored, in corymbs, cymes or clusters, perfect, regular; 
stamens numerous; styles five (sometimes two or three); 
carpels of the same number, two-seeded. Seeds in cells that 
are made up of horny, parchment-like thin walls. Fruit a pome. 



312 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Pyrus ioensis. Iowa Crab. Wild Crab. Western Crab. 

Leaves simple, oblong or obovate-oval, variovisly notched 
and toothed; the lower surface as well as the leaf stalks, short 
pedicels and yonng growth densely white pubescent. Flowers 
rose-colored, fragrant, much like those of Pyrus coronaria, with 
which this species was formerly classed and is now sometimes 
referred to as a A^ariety. Fruit round, somewhat flattened, dull 
green with small light dots, hard, bitter, keeps through the 
winter. A small tree. 

Distribution. — Minnesota and Wisconsin, south to Kentucky 
and Indian Territory. 

Propagation. — By seeds or by graftage. It does not form a 
durable union wth Pyrus mains, although such unions may last 
several years. 

Properties of zvOod. — Heavy, close grained, not hard nor 
strong; brown to light red in color, with thick yellow sap- 
wood. Specific gravity 0.7048; weight of a cubic foot 43.92 
pounds. 

Uses. — The Iowa Crab, with its large fragrant flowers, forms 
a very pretty small ornamental tree. The fruit is made into 
preserves and cider. When growing in its natural state the 
tree is hardy and is seldom injured by fire-blight, but seems 
to be very much subject to this disease when cultivated, es- 
pecially after it has been transplanted. 

Pyrus americana. Mountain Ash. American Mountain 
Ash. 

Leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets eleven to seventeen, lanceolate, 
taper-pointed, bright green above, generally paler beneath. 
Flowers in large compound leafy cymes, appearing in May or 
June. Fruit usually three-celled, globose or slightly pear- 
shaped, bright red with thin flesh, one-fourth inch in diameter, 
ripens in late autumn and remains on the tree all winter unless 
eaten by birds. A small tree with smooth bark seldom reach- 
ing a height of thirty feet, and often a mere shrub. 

Distribution. — From Newfoundland to Manitoba and south- 
wards through the more elevated portions of northeastern 
United States and the region of the Great Lakes. It reaches 
its greatest size north of Lake Superior and Lake Huron. In 



IOWA CRAB. 



313 




Plate 45. Pynis iociisis. Iowa Crab. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of 
flower with petals removed, natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half 
natural size. 4. Longitudinal section of fruit, one-half natural size. 5. 
Summer branch, one-half natural size. 



ai4 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Minnesota coninion through the northern part of the state, ex- 
tending south to Pine and Mille Lacs counties. 

Propagation. — The species is srown from seeds and the varie- 
ties by budding and grafting. The 'seeds may be gathered dur- 
ing the autumn, stratified over winter and sown in the spring, 
but seeds thus treated will seldom start until the second sea- 
son. A better- way is to put the seeds ten inches deep in a 
hole, and cover with three inches of sand in the autumn. They 
should remain in such a place until a year irom the follow- 
ing spring, when the berries will be thoroughly rotted and the 
seeds may be sifted out from the pulp and sown. Thus treated, 
they come up the season of planting. 

Properties of zvood. — Soft, light and weak, pale brown with 
lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5451; weight of 
a cubic foot 33.97 pounds. 

Uses.- — The American Mountain Ash is used as an orna- 
mental tree on account of its abundant bright colored fruit, but 
is not so pretty in this respect as the European or Elderleaf 
Mountain Ash. The trunk of the tree is liable to sunscald, 
and when planted in exposed places it should be encouraged to 
send up sprouts from the roots and from the lower parts of the 
trunk. Treated in this way it forms a large shrub of great 
value from an ornamental point of view, and is very hardy 
even in exceedingly severe locations. The fruit is astringent. 
It is used in some homeopathic and domestic remedies. The 
wood is sometimes used as a veneer in cabinet work. 

Pyrus sambucifolia. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. 

Leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets seven to fifteen, oblong-ovate, 
mostly obtuse. Flowers appear in July, in small dense pubes- 
cent cymes. The fruit is globose, bright scarlet, and some- 
times nearly a half inch in diameter. It is produced in dense 
red-branched clusters, and remains on the tree into the winter. 
A small tree that is often mistaken for Pyrus americana, from 
which it is best distinguished by its smaller cymes, its larger 
and later flowers and its more obtuse and broader leaflets. 

Distribution. — It is found growing from southern Greenland 
to Labrador and northern New England, along the northern 
shores of the Great Lakes to Little Slave Lake, through the 



MOUNTAIN ASH. 



315 




Plate 43. Pyrus sambucifolia. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section of 
flower, enlarged. 3. Traverse sections of ovary, enlarged. 4. Cluster of 
fruit, one-half natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit. 6. Cross 
section of fruit. 7. Longitudinal section of seed. 8. Embryo, magnified. 
9. W inter buds, one-half natural size. 



316 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Rocky Mountains to Alaska and northeastern Asia. In Minne- 
sota it is common northward extending south to Lake Itasca 
and rarely found farther south. 

Propagation. — Same as recommended for American Mountain 
Ash. 

Properties of n'ood. — Practically the same as American Moun- 
tain Ash. 

Uses. — The large and brilliant fruit of the Elderleaf Moun- 
tain Ash makes it the handsomest of all Mountain Ashes, and 
as it is very hardy it is a desirable lawn tree. Like all the 
Mountain Ashes it is likely to sunscald on the trunk when 
grown singly and the trunk left unprotected, and will do best 
if several sprouts are encouraged to grow from the trunk as 
recommended for the American Mountain Ash. 

Pyrus aucuparia. [European Mountain Ash. 

Leaves odd-pinnate, softer and more graceful than those of 
Pyrus americana; leaflets thirteen to fifteen, ovate, generally 
blunt pointed, lower surfaces and stalks downy, at length 
glabrous. Flowers in May or June followed by large red ber- 
ries (one-half inch in diameter) which hold on into the winter. 
There are varieties with yellow and orange fruit. Tree of fair 
size, often thirty feet high, much more graceful than the Ameri- 
can Mountain Ash. 

Distribution.- — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation and properties of wood. — About the same as the 
American Mountain Ash. 

Uses. — The European Mountain Ash is a good, small orna- 
mental tree of graceful 
habit, conspicuous for its 
'S:r,«*-v numerous large clusters 

. ^ , of white flowers in May 

or June and for its 
•* bright red and orange 

," . fruit in autumn and win- 

•■•• (^■< ter. It is about as hardy 

/'«>-,. \ as the American Moun- 

0^%f''\ ' tain Ash, but of more 

»••'/•■ ' ■ ■' ' rapid growth. It should 

be treated in the same 



Figure 59. Weeping Mountain Ash. 



way. 



MOUNTAIN ASH. 



317 



Varieties. — There are several varieties, varying in habit of 
growth and color of fruit. The following arc the ones most 
commonly planted: 

Pyrus aucuparia pendula. Weeping Mountain Ash. 

A form with pendulous, graceful habit. It 
grows freely, is hardy and is interesting for 
variety. It is largely used as a lawn curiosity. 
Propagated by grafting onto the American or 
Hurnpcan Mountain Ash. 

Pyrus hybrida. Oakleaf Mountain 
Ash. 

Leaves five to six inches long, lyrate pin- 
natifid, often pinnate at the base, irregularly 
and sharply serrate, dark green and glabrous 
above, pale and densely pubescent beneath. 
Flowers white, in large conspicuous clusters. 
Propagated by grafting onto the European or 
American species. This Mountain Ash forms 
a very pretty lawn or park tree of upright 
pyramidal habit, attaining a height of twenty 
or thirty feet. In hardiness it ranks with the 
European Mountain Ash. It is said to be a 
hybrid between Pyrus aria (Sweet Beam 
Tree) and Pyrus aucuparia. 




Figure 60. I,eaf of 
Oakleaf Mountain 
Ash, one-third nat- 
ural size. 



Genus AM:EI/ANCHIER. 

A small genus of trees and shrubs with alternate simple 
leaves, racemose white flowers and edible fruit. 



Amelanchier canadensis. 

Servicetree. 



Serviceberry. Juncberry. 



Leaves ovate or oval, pointed, finely serrate, reddish brown, 
with scattered white hairs when young, becoming dark green 
above and paler beneath at maturity; stipules early decidu- 
ous. Flowers appear after the leaves in spreading or drooping 
racemes; petals thin, pure white, about one-half inch long; 
calyx much shorter than petals. Fruit one-fourth to one-half 
inch in diameter; ripens in early summer, dark purple when 



318 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

fully ripe, sweet and edible. A tree sometimes reaching a 
height of fifty feet, but seldom over twenty-five feet, and often 
a mere shrub. 

Distrihution.- — From Newfoundland westward along the north- 
ern shores of the Great Lakes to eastern Nebraska, and south 
to Florida and Louisiana. 

Propagation. — The species by seeds and the varieties by suck- 
ers, layers and cuttings. 

Properties of zuood. — Heavy, very hard, close-grained, sus- 
ceptible of a good polish; dark brown in color, with thick 
lighter-colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.7838; weight of a 
cubic foot 48.85 pounds. 

Uses. — The profusion of white flowers produced by the Serv- 
iceberry in early spring makes it a pretty ornamental tree or 
shrub at that time of the year. It may be planted to supply 
food for the birds or to produce fruit for home use. The 
wood is occasionally used for handles of tools or other small 
implements. 

Varieties. — Amelanchicr canadensis varies considerably in the 
form of the leaves, size of flowers and fruit and in haWt of 
growth. The following is the most distinct of these varieties. 

Amelanchier canadensis obovalis. I/Ongleaf Service- 
tree. Dwarf Juneberry. Suscutanberry. 

Leaves oblong or broadly elliptical, acute or rounded at the 
apex, remotely serrate or nearly entire below the middle, coated 
at first on the lower surface with thick white tomentum. Flow- 
ers smaller than those of the species. A small bush or tree 
common in Quebec, Ontario and the Northeastern States, and 
in localities westward to the Mackenzie river, North Dakota. 
Minnesota and Missouri. A dwarf form of this, with large 
fruit, is cultivated to some extent through the Northern States. 
The Indians of Minnesota and Dakota gather the berries in 
rather large quantities and sell small quantities in some of the 
remote towns. 

Amelanchier alnifolia. Western Serviceberry. Ser- 
viceberry. 

Leaves broadly ovate, obtuse or rarely acute, coarsely dentate 
or serrate towards the apex. Flowers in erect rather dense 



nOTTF.D TTAVV. 3in 

racemes. Fruit dark blue or almost black, sweet and juicy. 
A shrub or small tree which in the eastern limits of its range 
is hardly distinguishable from some of the broad-leaved forms 
of Aiitclaucliicr caiiadciisis. 

Distribution. — From the valley of the Yukon river south 
through the coast ranges to southern California and cast to 
Michigan and Nebraska. 

Propagaiion. — By seeds and suckers. 

Properties of zvood. — Very heavy, hard and close grained, 
light brown. Specific gravity 0.8262; weight of a cubic foot 
51.55 pounds. 

Uses. — The fruit as found in the wild state is gathered by the 
Indians and used by them for food. 

Genus CRATi^GUS. 

Leaves alternate, simple, lobed or pinnatifid. Flowers 
mostly in terminal corymbs, regular, perfect, white or rarely 
rose colored. Fruit a fleshy, drupe-like pome, containing one 
to five hard one-seeded carpels, and having on its summit the 
persistent calyx lobes. Small trees or shrubs, armed with 
thorns. It is very difficult to identify accurately the species of 
this, genus on account of their varying and conflicting charac- 
teristics. There are undoubtedly six or more species in Minne- 
sota, and they are now being studied by specialists, but are not 
accurately defined. 

Propagation. — The fruit sliould be stratified over winter be- 
fore sowing the seeds, which seldom germinate until the second 
year. 

Crataegus punctata. Dotted Haw. 

Leaves wedge-obovate or ovate, midribs and principal veins 
prominent on lower surface. Petioles more or less winged. 
Flowers in broad corymbs, appearing about June ist. Each 
flower has twenty stamens, which characteristic seems to be 
constant. Fruit dull red, one-half to one inch in length, flesh 
dry; ripens in late autumn. A tree twenty to thirty feet high, 
with branches that come out nearly at right angles, and often 
a broad flat top. Thorns on the older branches and trunks 
generally compound and gray in color. 



]2(» 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 44. Crataegus punclaia. Dotted Haw. 

I. A flowering branch'. 2. A flower. 3. A fruiting branch. 4. Cross- 
section of iruit. 5. A nutlet divided transversely. 6. A characteristic 
thorny branch. 



WilJ) I'LUM. , 321 

Distribution. — At least quite conunon in the soutliern half of 
Minnesota. 

Uses. — Valuable for hedges and as a lawn tree in good soil. 
The wood is heavy, hard and strong, and is often used for walk- 
ing sticks and firewood. 

Genus PRUNUS. 

Shrubs or trees with alternate, simple leaves. Flowers wilh 
calyx that is deciduous after flowering; a single pistil with a 
superior ovary containing a pair of ovules and becoming a 
single drupe or stone fruit. This genus comprises some of our 
most valued fruits, such as the Plum, Peach, Cherry, Apricot 
and Nectarine, and ornamental plants such as the Double Flow- 
ering Almond. All the species here referred to are ornamental 
when in flower. 

This genus seems to divide more or less into two groups, 
which are distinguished by the form of inflorescence, one group 
bearing its flowers in racemes and the other in umbels. It is 
of interest to notice that it is difficult, if not quite impossible, 
to graft or bud trees of tlie difTerent groups together, while 
within each group trees of the different species can be grafted 
quite readily. 

Prunus americana. Wild Plum. 

Leaves oval or slightly obovate. Flowers appear when the 
leaves are about one-half unfolded. Fruit large, colored with 
red and yellow, often with a heavy bloom; generally ascerb but 
frequently good; the parent of our cultivated sorts such as 
Rollingstone, Wolf, Forest Garden, De Soto, Cheney and 
others; ripens August to Septeinber. A small thorny tree, 
seldom over twenty feet high, and generally found growing 
in thickets. A form of this that flowers very early and has 
fruit with a thin pit is considered a variety or perhaps a separate 
species. {P. nigra.) The Aitkin Plum conies under this head. 

Distribution. — It is found from New York and New Jersey to 
Nebraska and the upper Missouri Valley south to northern 
Mexico and western Florida. In Minnesota throughout the 
state, in thickets along banks of streams. 

Propagation. — Grown from the seeds, which should not be 
allowed to become hard and dry, but should be stratified if they 
21 



?.22 'TREIiS OI^ MINNESOTA. 

are expected to grow the following spring. If planted in the 
autumn as soon as separated from the pulp about two-thirds 
of the seeds will grow the following spring and the remainder 
the second year. It may also be grown from sprouts and roots 
cuttings. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, close grained and strong. 
It is dark brown in color, with a thin light-colored sapwoqd, 
and takes a good polish. Specific gravity 0.7313: weight of a 
cubic foot 46.95 pounds. 

Uses. — The Wild Plum is pretty in flower and in fruit, and 
is a good hardy ornamental tree, as well as a good fruit tree. 
The fruit of the wild kinds is readily sold, and is much used 
for culinary purposes, and many of the cultivated kinds afford 
excellent table fruits. This is one of the best undershrubs that 
can be put in our prairie groves, where it affords protection to 
the soil from evaporation and at the same time yields desirable 
though of course inferior fruit under such conditions. 

Prunus pennsylvanica. Wild Red Cherry. Bird 

Cherry. Pigeon Cherry. Pin Cherry. 

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, long pointed, finely and sharply 
serrate, with incurved teeth often tipped with minute glands, 
thin, shining, green and smooth on both sides. Fruit ripens 
in July or August, a very small, bright red drupe with thin sour 
flesh and smooth oblong stone that is ridged on the ventral 
margin. A small, handsome tree that seldom reaches a height 
of forty feet, and is often a mere shrub. It has smooth, red- 
dish-brown, bark, which peels off in transverse strips around 
the tree. 

Distribution. — Found in moist, rather rich soil from New- 
foundland west to the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and 
south to northern Illinois and Pennsylvania; also in North 
Carolina, Tennessee and Colorado. In Minnesota common 
throughout all but the southwestern part of the state, where it 
rarely occurs. 

Propagation. — Grown from seeds, which should be stratified 
and sown in the spring or sown in autiuiin. They are dis- 
tributed by roliins, wax-wings and other birds that eat largely 
of the fruit. The Wild Red Cherry has thus become a very 
common tree in waste places, although not so common in our 



CHERRY. 



323 




Plate 45. Prunus pcnnsylvaiiica. Wild Red Cherry. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section ol 
flower. 3. Fruiting branch, one-balf natural size. 4. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of fruit, slightly enlarged. 5. Cross section of fruit. 6. Embryo 
enlarged. 7. Axil of leaf showing stipules, one-half natural size. 8. Win- 
ter branchlet. one-half natural size. 



324 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

section as eastward, where it is one of the first trees to come 
in on old timber lands. 

Properties of ivood. — Light, soft, close grained, light brown in 
color, with thin yellow sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5023; a 
cubic foot weighs 31.30 pounds. 

Uses. — The Wild Red Cherry is very hardy, grows rapidly 
under cultivation, and is well adapted to prairie planting. It 
is shapely and handsome, although a short lived tree. In the 
early spring it is conspicuous by reason of its great quantity 
of white flowers. It might be used for shade in timber plant- 
ings and for bird food. The fruit is used for domestic pur- 
poses and in the preparation of cough mixtures. Seedlings 
have been used to a limited extent as a stock for the cultivated 
cherries. 

Prunus serotina. Black Cherry. Wild Black Cherry. 
Rum Cherry. 

Leaves oval oblong, or lanceolate-oblong taper-pointed, ser- 
rate, with two to four redidish glands on petiole. Flowers ap- 
pear in June after the leaves are full grown, in long pendulous 
white racemes. Fruit somewhat larger than a pea, purplish 
black when ripe, smooth, one-seeded, rarely two-seeded, ripens 
in August or September in Minnesota. A large tree, sixty or 
more feet high, but generally much smaller at the limit of its 
range. 

Distribution. — From Nova Scotia westward through the 
Canadian Provinces and Northern States to Dakota, and south 
to Texas and Florida. In Minnesota common throughout all 
but the extreme northern part of the state, in woods along 
shaded lake shores and banks. 

Propagation. — The Black Cherry is grown from seeds which 
are produced in great abundance. They should be sown when 
gathered in the autumn, or stratified over winter and sown in 
the spring. 

Properties of wood.- — Light, strong and rather hard, with a 
close, straight grain and satiny surface susceptible of receiving a 
beautiful polish. It is light brown or red, with a thin layer of 
yellow sapwood, but grows darker on exposure to the air. Spe- 
cific gravity 0.5822; weight of a culiic foot 36.28 pounds. 



CHERRY. 



320 




Plate 46. l-'runus scroliiia. Black Cherry. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Longitudinal section ol 
flower, enlarged. 3. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 4. Cross sec- 
tion of fruit, natural size. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit, natural size. 6. 
Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 



32(; TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Uses.— The Black Cherry has a pretty and often a stately 
form when growing single, and is very ornamental when in 
flower and fruit. It is, however, liable to injuries from the 
tent caterpillar, which is very fond of its leaves. It can often 
be introduced to advantage into timber plantings in this section, 
and is an object of much interest on account of its flowers and 
fruit. It is also a good timber tree. The fruit is often used in 
a small way for making cherry brandy and in flavoring alco- 
holic liquors. Medicinal properties are found in the bark, es- 
pecially in that of the branches and roots, and are readily yielded 
to cold water, for owing to volatilization and chemical change 
boiling water must not be used. This extract contains hydro- 
cyanic acid, and is employed for infusions, syrups and fluid ex- 
tracts, which are used as tonics and sedatives in the treatment 
of pulmonary consumption and nervous debility. Cattle have 
been frequently poisoned by eating the wilted leaves. Children 
occasionally die from eating the kernels of the pits or by swal- 
lowing the fruit whole. Fresh leaves are considered harmless, 
as the poison is formed by chemical action in the leaves after 
being separated from the plant. The wood is valuable for 
cabinet making and fine interior finishing, and is in great de- 
mand, on account of its fine reddish brown color, for tripods, 
surveyors' rods and cases, and spirit levels. It is also used 
for printers' furniture and wood type, school apparatus, drawing 
instruments, gunstocks. crutches, toys and tool handles. 

Prunus virginiana. Choke Cherry. 

Leaves thin, broadly oval to oblong, usually abruptly pointed. 
Flowers in racemes (shorter and closer than in P. scroiina), ap- 
pearing in June. Fruit ripens in summer, red, turning dark 
crimson, astringent when first colored, but later loses much of 
its astringency and becomes sweet and edible. A small tree 
with scented bark, rarely thirty feet high, and generally short 
and crooked. (In this section it is generally covered with the 
excrescences called Black Knot, which are caused by the fungus 
Plozvrightia morhosa.) 

Distribution. — From Labrador to British Columbia, north to 
within the Arctic Circle and south to Georgia, Texas and Cali- 
fornia. Very widely distributed. In Minnesota common 
throughout the state along banks of streams and lakeshore. 



CHERRY 




4 m 



I'late 47. FniiiKS virgin. ana. Choke Cherry. 

I. A flowering branch. 2. A fruiting branch. 3. Part of a leafy branch 
with stipules. 4. A winter branchlet, reduced. 5. N'ertical section of 
flower, enlarged. 6. Vertical !-ection cf fruit, enlarged. 7. A stone, one- 
half natural size. 8. Branch showing Ulack Knot, reduced. 



328 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — Grown from seeds, which should be stratified 
over winter and sown in the spring. 

Properties of -ivood. — Heavy, hard and close grained, but not 
strong. It is light brown in color, with a thick light colored 
sapwood. The specific gravity 0.6951; weight oJ a cubic foot 
43.42 pounds. 

Uses. — The Choke Cherry is a very handsome tree when cov- 
ered with its abundant racemes of pure white flowers and also 
when in fruit, but generally it is so disfigured by Black Knot as 
to make it unsightly. The fruit is used in large quantities by 
the French Canadians and was formerly an important article of 
food among the northern Indians, and is now used to some 
extent in the Western States. In Minnesota and the Dakotas 
there is a form that is much superior to the common Choke 
Cherry, in that it has larger, less astringent fruit. Some authors 
make it a separate species (Prunus dciiiissa), but Professor 
Sargent regards it as a variety whose variations are due to the 
drier climate of the mid-continental states. 



LEGUMINOSAE. PEA FAMILY. 

• Distinguished by the butterfly-shaped (occasionally regular) 
corolla, usually accompanied by ten monadelphous or diadelphus 
stamens (rarely distinct); fruit a legume; leaves alternate, com- 
pound with stipules. 

A large and important family, comprising trees, shrubs and 
herbs. Some of our most important agricultural plants belong 
here, such as the pea, bean, clover, alfalfa, vetch, peanut, etc., 
and among shrubs the Siberian Pea Tree (Caragana), Cytisus, 
Bladder-senna (Colutea) and Wistaria. Important trees be- 
longing here that are beyond our range are the Yellow-wood 
(Cladrastis), Sophora, Laburnum, Mesquit and Red Bud* 
(Cercis). 



♦Perhaps found in Southern Minnesota. 



HONEY LOCUST. SL'O 

(k nus GI.EDITSIA. 

Gleditsia triacanthos. Honey l/ocust. Tlnoethorn 
Acacia. Black Locust. 

Leaves evenly once or twice pinnatcly compound; thorns 
very stout, from two to twelve inches in length, and usually 
sending out two thorns as branches; but in some sections, 
notably in Iowa, many trees may be found without thorns, and 
these are especially desirable for windbreaks. Flowers in June, 
polygamous, greenish and inconspicuous in small spike-like 
axillary racemes. Fruit a flat, linear, dark-colored pod, often 
twelve inches long, which becomes much twisted as the seed 
ripens. This pod contains a pulp which is sweet at first, but 
after a few weeks ferments and becomes astringent. The seed 
ripens in autunm, and the pods fall of¥ in late autumn or early 
winter. The twisted form of the pods assists in the distribu- 
tion of the seed, as the pods do not open until some time after 
they fall, and may be rolled for long distances by the wind over 
the frozen ground or on the snow. 

Distribution. — It inhabits rich woods and borders of streams 
from western New York, Pennsylvania and Georgia west to 
southern Ontario, eastern Nebraska, Louisiana and Texas. 

Pro/^agation. — The Honey Locust is easily grown from seeds 
which should be gathered in late autumn, early winter or as soon 
as the pods fall. The seeds must be scalded in the same man- 
ner as recommended for the Common Locust, or they may re- 
main in the soil a year before grovving. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard, strong and very durable in 
contact with the ground. It is coarse grained, of a red or 
bright reddish brown color, with thin, pale sapwood. Specific 
gravity 0.6740; weight of a cubic foot 42 pounds. 

Uses. — The Honey Locust is a valuable tree for street and 
ornamental planting, lor timber belts, windbreaks and for 
hedges wherever it is hardy. It has a graceful form, is a rapid 
grower, easy to transplant, very free from insect and fungous 
diseases, and not given to sprouting from the root. The wood 
is used for fence posts and rails, for the hubs of wheels and to 
some extent for construction. It also makes good fuel. This 
tree is not generally hardy in Minnesota, though it has stood very 
well in favorable locations in the southeastern portion of the 
slate, and even at St. Paul has done fairly well where protected. 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 










Plate 48. Gledi'sJa triacanthos. Honey Locust. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Diagram of flower. 
4. Longitudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal 
section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Longitudinal section of ovary, en- 
larged. 7. A spine and a single fruit showing seed, cross section of seed 
and embryo, one-half natural size. 8. Doubly pinnate leaf, one-half natural 
size. 9. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 



COFKI'.ICTRICIC. 331 

but is likely to kill back in severe winters, though tlic roots are 
very hardy and generally renew the top the season following any 
winter injury. In Iowa and Missouri it forms a large tree, 
often three feet through the trunk. The one-year-old seedlings 
arc rather tender the first winter, and should be dug and heeled 
in or heavily mulched at the end of tiic first season, after which 
they are rather hardy. 

Genus GYMNOCI.ADUS. 

Gymnocladus dioicus. {('. camKhnsis.) Coffeetree. 

Kentucky Cotleetree. 

Leaves very large, two to three feet long, twice pinnate, each 
partial leaf stalk bearing seven to thirteen ovate leaflets, the 
lowest pair with single leaflets. The leaflets stand vertically. 
The color of the leaves is a bluish green. The flowers are 
dioecious or polygamous, whitish, borne in large racemes which 
are much longer on the fertile than on the sterile trees. Fruit 
a large flat pod, containing large seeds over one-half inch in 
diameter, surrounded by a thick layer of dark colored sweet 
pulp. The fruit' generally remains unopened on the tree all 
winter. Flowers appear from May to July. 

Distribution. — One of the rarest forest trees of North America, 
found growing from western New York and sout'.iern Ontario 
west to the IMinnesota Valley, and eastern Nebraska and south 
between the Mississippi river and the Allegheny Mountains to 
Tennessee. In Minnesota it is found sparingly in southern and 
southeastern portions of the state north to near St. Paul and as 
far west as New Ulm. 

Propagation. — Grown from root cuttings or from seeds, which 
should be scalded before being sown, as recommended for the 
seeds of Locust. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, not very hard, strong, coarse 
grained, likely to check in drying, but very durable in contact 
with the ground. It can be easily worked, and takes a good 
polish. It is rich brown in color, with thin rather lighter 
colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6934; weight of a cubic 
foot 43.21 pounds. 

Uses. — The CofYeetrec is graceful and ornamental when in 
leaf, and in winter is interesting from its peculiar naked and 



332 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 49. Gymnocladus dioicus. Coffeetree. 

I. Inflorescence from staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Pistil- 
late flower, one-half natural size. 3. Diagram of flower. 4. Longitudinal 
section of staminate flower, natural size. 5. Pistillate flower with a por- 
tion removed. 6. Pistil with section of ovary removed. 7. Portion of 
branch bearing a single fruit showing seed and embryo, one-half natural size. 
8. Cross section of seed, one-half natural size. 9. Portion of leaf, one- 
half natural size. 10. Portion of winter branch, one-half natural size. 



LOCUST. 333 

(lead appearance. It is one of the latest trees to leaf out, and 
the new growth is strikingly pretty. The leaflets near the ends 
•of the leaves are bright pink, while those that opened first are 
green or bronze colored. The young leaves in June are a rich 
lirown color. It is very hardy, and is not particular about the 
soil in which it grows, but attains a large size only in rich, deep, 
moist soils. The wood is occasionally used in cabinet making 
and for fence posts, rails and in construction. As the name 
implies the seed has sometimes been used as a substitute for 
coffee. Its chief value is for ornament. 

Genus ROBINIA. 

Robinia pseadacacia. I/OCUSt. Yellow Locust. Black 
Locust. Common Locust. False Acacia. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, composed of from 
nine to seventeen leaflets. Flowers white, fragrant, in con- 
spicuous pendulous racemes three to five inches long appear- 
ing in latter part of May or early in June. Pods flat, four to 
five inches long, containing about six hard, small and rather flat 
seeds, which ripen in late autumn and often hang on the tree 
all winter. The light, handsome foliage of this tree constitutes 
one of its principal charms; the leaves open during the day 
and as night comes on close down as if for rest. The young 
growth is usually furnished with strong recurved prickles, 
though trees can frequently be found that are entirely free from 
them, and it is this latter form that is used in some European 
countries as fodder for cattle. A slender forest tree, occasion- 
ally reaching the height of sixty or seventy feet and a diameter 
of two feet. 

Distribution. — Southern Pennsylvania to Indiana, Iowa and 
southward. Under cultivation it has become widely distributed. 
In Minnesota it is found along the Mississippi river as far north 
as Minneapolis, and occasionally elsewhere in this state, some- 
times forming trees fifty feet or more in height, but generally 
it is much smaller, and often forms mere thickets which are oc- 
casionally killed back in severe winters. 

Propagation. — The Locust is grown from seeds, which may 
be gathered in the pods, kept in any dry place, and planted in 
the spring. Just before planting the seeds should be scalded 



3.34 



TREEvS OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 50. Robiitia pscudacacia. Locust. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natv:ral size. 2. Flower, front view, one- 
half natural size. 3. Tube of stamens, a- Longitudinal section of pistil. 
5. Diagram of the flower. 6. Legumes, one-half natural size. 7. Pod 
open showing seed, one-half natural size. S. A seed, one-half natural size. 



MAPLK. 33.-1 

severely. This causes part of them to swell. Sift or pick these 
out and scald those remaining again. Continue this scalding 
and sifting until all have svirelled. The seed can then be sown 
at once in well prepared soil, and will in good soil produce 
l)lanl'^ tlirec- or more feet high the first season. They may also 
he grown from root cuttings and from sprouts. 

Prof^crtics of n'ood. — Heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, 
close grained and very durable in contact with the ground. It 
is brown or light green, with very thin, pale yellow sapwood. 
The specific gravity is 0.7^33; weight of a cubic foot 45.7 pounds. 

Uses. — The Locust is too tender for general planting in 
Minnesota, hut in favorable locations it makes a desirable lawn 
tree on account of its pretty foliage and white flowers. It can 
be sown in forest plantations, but is not generally desirable for 
such places on account of its sharp prickles, its tendency to 
sprout and its liability to being occasionally killed back, although 
it seldom kills out. This tree is subject to the attacks of borers, 
which generally spoil the value of the timber for manufacturing 
purposes. The wood is valuable for posts, ribs of vessels, tree 
nails, and anything which requires great strength. It is also 
excellent for fuel. It is a very popular tree in Europe, and is 
said to be more extensively cultivated there than any other 
American tree. The bark of the root is tonic, or in large doses 
purgative and emetic, and is used in homeopathic remedies. 
Three cases of poisoning in children who had eaten the root 
bv mistake have been recorded. 



ACERACEAE. MAPLE FAMILY. 

A family composed ol two genera, only one of which is rep- 
resented in America. 

Genus ACER. 

A genus of about 100 species of trees and shrubs, witii watery 
often saccharine sap and opposite simple leaves. Flowers regu- 
lar, generally polygamous or dioecious and sometimes apetalous; 
ovary two-celled, having two ovules in each cell. Fruit a 
double samara. The bark is astringent, and yields coloring 
matter. 



336 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Acer saccharum, (./. s(icr//iir////f»r) Sugar Maple. 

Hard Maple. Rock Maple. 

Leaves large, three to five toothed, opposite, deep green 
above and paler green beneath. Flovi^ers greenish yellow, in 
nearly sessile umbel-like corymbs, apetalous, appearing with the 
leaves in the spring. Fruit a double samara; wings rather 
broad; seed ripens in autumn. The foliage becomes very bril- 
liantly colored in autumn. 

Distribution. — A large and important tree in the Northern and 
Middle States, extending southward to Florida and Texas and 
from Newfoundland to North Dakota and northern Minne- 
sota. Very abundant in eastern Minnesota, though seldom 
found in the western portions. It occurs at Lake Minnewaska, 
in Pope county, and at the head waters of the Redwood river 
in Lyon county, and as far west as Robert county. South Da- 
kota, where it occurs in the coulies at the head waters of the 
Minnesota river. 

Propagation. — The Sugar Maple is propagated by seeds, which 
should be gathered in autumn and sown at once or kept over 
winter, as recommended fur the Ash, and sown in the spring. 

Properties of tvood. — Very hard, heavy, compact and strong, 
with a fine satiny surface susceptible of taking a good polish. 
The perfectly seasoned sapwood is light colored, and the heart- 
wood is light brown of various shades. Specific gravity 0.6916; 
weight of a cubic foot 43.08 pounds. 

Uses. — The Sugar Maple is very hardy over most of Minne- 
sota in rich, porous, moist soils, when grown in forests, and 
forms our best fuel wood. It does well as a street tree on 
suitable soil in the southeastern part of this state if the trunk is 
shaded. When not thus protected the trunk is liable to sun 
scald. In the northwestern and western portions it often winter- 
kills badly in exposed locations, especially when young and 
before becoming well established, and for this reason is not well 
adapted to general planting. 

The wood of the Sugar Maple is more valuable and more 
generally used than that of 'any other American Maple. It pos- 
sesses a high fuel value, is largely used for interior finish of 
buildings, especially for floors, in the manufacture of furniture, 
agricultural implements, school apparatus, musxal instruments, 
gymnasium goods, drawing instruments, surveyors' rods, artists' 



MAPLE. 



337 




Plate SI. Acer saccharum. Sugar Maple. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate tiowers, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 4. Staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section 
of staminate Hower, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Longi- 
tudinal section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Longitudinal section of 
fruit, one-half natural size. 9. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. 
Embryo, enlarged. 11. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 



2-2 



S§8 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

goods, wood type, and engravers' wood, butter molds, croquet 
sets, crutches, umbrella sticks and canes, kegs, sugar hogsheads, 
churns, measures, faucets, wood screws and gauges charcoal, in 
turnery for handles of tools and clothes pins, and in ship build- 
ing for keels, etc. In the United States shoe lasts and pegs 
are made almost exclusively from this wood. Accidental forms 
in which the grain is beautifully curled and contorted, known 
as "curled maple" and "bird's-eye maple" are common, and 
highly prized for cabinet making. The ashes of the wood are 
rich in alkili, and yield large quantities of potash. The wood of 
the Minnesota and Wisconsin Sugar Maple is so very hard and 
uneven in grain that it has not been worked much into lumber, 
and the supply of Hard Maple lumber manufactured here is 
mostly imported from Michigan, where clear stock is more 
plentiful. Maple sugar is almost the exclusive product of this 
tree. It is made by evaporating the sap, which is procured by 
tapping the trees in early spring some weeks before the buds 
begin to swell. About three or four gallons of sap are usually 
required to make a pound of sugar. Two or three pounds of 
sugar per tree is the average yield, but large isolated trees will 
often yield very much more than this. When tapping is prop- 
erly done it does not seriously impair the health of the tree. 

Acer platanoides. Norway Maple. 

Leaves broad, smooth, thin, bright green on both sides, their 
five short taper-pointed lobes set with coarse taper-pointed teeth. 
Flowers numerous, with both sepals and petals distinct, yellow- 
ish, conspicuous, in erect corymbose clusters terminating the 
shoot of the season, or some from lateral buds appearing with 
the leaves. Fruit in drooping clusters, with large divergent 
wings spreading two and one-half to three and one-half inches, 
ripening in autumn. Buds blunt pointed and rather divergent; 
new growth often reddish; juice milky. Resembles the Sugar 
Maple in general appearance, but is easily distinguished from it. 
Its leaves hold green later than other maples, and turn a bright 
yellow in autumn. A round-headed tree attaining a height of 
from thirty to sixty feet. 

Distribution. — Northern and central Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds for the species and by budding, graft- 
ing or layering for the varieties. 



MAPLK. 



331) 




Plate 52. Acer plataiiotdes. Norway Maple. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural si^e. 2. Staminatc flower. 3. 

Perfect llowtr. -|. Lndcrsidc ot flowtr. 5. l'i.stil on disk. 6. Stamen, 

enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of seed. 9. Leaf, one-haif natural size. 



340 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, hard and durable under cover. 
Specific gravity, air dried, 0.68. 

Uses. — The Norway Maple has been much used as an orna- 
mental tree in the Northeastern States, where it is long lived 
and often planted in preference to the Sugar Maple near the 
sea coast. In this section it has not been widely tried, but at 
the Minnesota Experiment Station it has never been seriously 
injured by the cold during the past twelve years, and has with- 
stood drouth extremely well. In the very dry summer of 1894, 
Birch, Black Cherry and European Larch died out in large 
numbers in the forest plantation, while on similar land near by 
the Norway Maple grew vigorously, its leaves retaining their 
dark green color throughout the season. The wood of the 
Norway Maple is used by the joiner, wheelwright and carver 
for a variety of purposes. 

J^ariciies. — There are many varieties of the Norway Maple, 
the most durable of which are the two following: 

Acer platanoides schwedlerii. Schwedler Maple, 

A beautiful variety with new growth, bark and leaves of a 
bright purplish or crimson color which later changes to a 
purplish green. A valuable tree which has stood at the Minne- 
sota Experiment Station for six years. 

Acer platanoides reitenbachi. Reitenbach Maple. 

An excellent and striking variety with dark purple leaves, 
which hold their color throughout the season. 

Acer saccharinutn. {^4. dasycarfum.) Silver Maple. 

Soft Maple. White Maple. Silverleaf Maple. 

Leaves deeply palmately five-lobed, silvery white and smooth 
beneath but downy while young. Flowers greenish, apetalous, 
on short pedicles, in axillary clusters, appearing before the 
leaves; ovary and young fruit downy. Fruit with large di- 
vergent wings, smooth at maturity though downy when young, 
ripens in early summer about the time the leaves are of full 
size. A large, quick growing tree, often ninety feet high, with 
more or less pendulous branches and light airy foliage, which 
gives it a graceful appearance. 



MAPLE. 



341 




Plate 53. Acer sacchariiium. Silver Maple. 

I. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-half natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, one- 
half natural size. 4. Staminate flf>wer, enlarged. 5. Pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 6. Pistil, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, en- 
larged. 8. Longitudinal section of samara, one-half natural size. 9. 
Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11. lim- 
bryo, displayed, enlarged. 



342 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



Distribution. — It is found in the north from the valley of the 
St. John river in New Brunswick to southern Ontario. It ex- 
tends southward through the United States to western Florida 
and west to eastern Dakota and Nebraska. It is adapted to a 
wide variety of soils, and is especially abundant along rivers, 
often growing luxuriantly on sand bars and land that is in- 
undated by spring freshets. A very common tree in southern 
and central Minnesota and north along the Mississippi valley. 

Propagation. — By seeds, 
which drop ofT in early 
summer, and where they 
fall on moist soil they soon 
grow. They are very deli- 
cate, however, and cannot 
be kept in good condition 
many weeks after they are 
ripe. If sown at once in 
good moist soil they will 
often produce plants two 
feet or more high the first 
season, and the growth is 
also very rapid in subse- 
quent years. The ornamen- 
tal varieties are propagated 
by grafting or budding on 
the seedlings, and occasion- 
ally by layering. 

Properties of wood. — 

Light, hard (though not 

nearly so hard as Sugar 

Maple), rather brittle and 

. X r r ,,r- , ^ , r caslly worlvcd. It is pale, 

Figure 5i. Leaf of Wier s Cutleaf , . , . ■ i i 

Maple— one-half natural size. famtly tmged With brOwn. 

The sapwood is light colored and thick. Specific gravity 0.5269; 
weight of a cubic foot 32.84 pounds. 

Uses. — The Silver INIaple is exceedingly hardy and of very rapid 
growth, but suffers from a deficiency of moisture in the soil. 
It makes a very good street and lawn tree on retentive land, 
and is adapted to a wide variety of soils. The limbs are brittle, 
and the crotches of the tree are weak and likely to break in 




MAPLE. 343 

severe wmd storms. This is most apparent where it grows on 
dry land, but if the trees are pruned occasionally they make 
very satisfactory shade trees, and are highly esteemed for this 
purpose in many sections of Minnesota. The Silver Maple is 
also successfully used for shelter belts. It sun scalds occa- 
sionally, though not commonly. The wood makes very good 
fuel, and is well adapted for interior finishing and flooring, and 
a form of it having a curly figure is used as veneering for ele- 
gant furniture and interior finishing. It is much used for shoe 
pegs. Maple sugar is sometimes made from the sap of this 
tree, but it is estimated that twice as much sap is necessary for a 
given quantity of sugar from this tree as from the Sugar Maple. 
Varieties. — There are many varieties cultivated for ornamnetal 
planting, among the best of which is a form known as Wier's 
Cutlcaf Maple, which has finely divided leaves and a very grace- 
ful pendent habit. It is about as hardy as the species, and is one 
ol the most satisfactor}- small ornamental trees. 

Acer rubrum. Red Maple. Scarlet Maple. Swamp Maple. 

Leaves palmately three to five-lobed, opposite. Flowers 
crimson scarlet, or sometimes yellowish, generally dioecious; 
appearing in sessile lateral clusters before the leaves very early 
in the spring, often before the snow has disappeared. The fruit 
on prolonged drooping pedicles ripens in early summer, about 
the time the leaves are expanded, and then drops ofT. This is 
a slender tree, somewhat resembling the Silver Maple, but of 
much slower growth and more compact habit. It will finally 
attain as large size as the Silver Maple. 

Distribution. — It is found naturally distributed over about the 
same area as the Silver Maple, but does not appear to be a com- 
mon tree anywhere in Minnesota, and seems to be wholly absent 
m the western half of this state. 

Propagation. — The Red Maple is propagated in the same man- 
ner as the Silver Maple. 

Properties of wood. — Heavy, close grained, easily worked, and 
not very strong. It is light brown often tinged with red, with 
a smooth, satiny surface. The sapwood is thick, and lighter 
colored than the heartwood. Specific gravity 0.6178; weight 
of a cubic foot 38.5 pounds. 



344 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 










Plate 54. Acer rubruni. Red Maple. 

1. Branch bearing staminate flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Branch 
bearing pistillate flowers, one-haff natural size. 3. Staminate flower, en- 
larged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half nat 
ural size. 6. Longitudinal section ot fruit, one-hall natural size. 7. Lon- 
gitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 8. Embryo, displayed, enlarged. 9. 
Winter branchlet, one-half natural size. 



MAPLE. 345 

Uses. — On account of its slow .c^rowth the Red Maple is 
seldom used for planting.'althousli very hardy. It is. however. 
very ornamental in the spring when loaded with its brilliant red 
fruit, which often appears while the branches are still destitute 
of leaves, and the gorgeous blaze of scarlet coloring of its leaves 
in autumn makes it a very conspicuous feature of the landscape 
at that season. It could often be employed to advantage in 
ornamental planting. The timber is a valuable fuel; it is used 
for floors, cabinet work, turnery, and in the manufacture of 
shovels, bowls and small wooden ware generally. The curly 
figure is sometimes found in this wood, and is sometimes used 
for choice veneering. The sap of the Red Maple is not so rich 
in sugar as that of the Sugar Maple, but produces a very good 
quality of maple sugar. 

Acer spicatum. Mountain Maple. 

Leaves three or slightly five-lobed, thin, downy on the lower 
surface, at rfiaturity glabrous above. Flowers small, greenish 
yellow, in upright dense, sometimes compound racemes, ap- 
pearing after the leaves, the fertile towards the base and the 
sterile at the ends of the racemes; petals much longer than the 
sepals. Fruit with small erect or divergent wings. Within 
our range a low shrub, with slender erect branches; in the 
shade in moist woods the .branches are often rather flexible, and 
it is probably on this account that it is given the name of Vine 
Maple in some parts of this section. 

Distribution. — Valley of the St Lawrence to northern Minne- 
sota and the Saskatchewan, southwards through the mountains 
to Georgia. Common in Minnesota south to Mille Lacs. 

Propagation. — By seeds. 

Properties of zvood. — Light, soft, light brown with thick lighter 
colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5330; weight of a cubic 
foot 33.22 pounds. 

Uses. — The Mountain Maple may occasionally be used to ad- 
vantage in shrubbery in shady situations. The tree is so small 
that the wood is of no special economic importance. 



34(5 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Acer pennsylvanicum. Striped Maple. Moosewood. 

Leaves large, five to seven inches long, palmately three- 
nerved, three-lobed at the apex, finely and doubly serrate. 
Flowers greenish, in slender drooping long-stemmed racemes; 
the sterile and fertile generally produced on different racemes 
on the same plant, appearing when the leaves are nearly full 
grown. Fruit with spreading wings, in long drooping racemes, 
ripens in autumn. An upright shrub in this section, seldom tak- 
ing on a tree form. 

Distribution. — Maine and Minnesota southwards to Virginia 
and Kentucky. 

Propagation. — By seeds, as recommended for Ash. 

Properties of tvood. ^l^'ight, soft and close grained, light brown 
with thick lighter colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.5299; 
weight of a cubic foot 33.02 pounds. 

Uses. — The Striped Maple is used in New York and south- 
wards for lawn planting, and may in this section be used for 
shrubberies. The brilliant foliage and bud scales in early spring, 
the. graceful flowers and summer foliage, the brilliant autumn 
coloring of the leaves and the conspicuously striped markings 
of the bark make the Striped Maple an interesting and attractive 
feature of the landscape. Well worthy of a trial in shrubberies 
on retentive soil. 

Acer tartaricum. Tartarian Maple. 

I-,eaves ovate or oblong, mostly undivided, incised-serrate, 
very bright colored in autumn; young branches tomentose. 
Flowers conspicuous, white, in erect clusters terminating the 
shoots of the season, appearing after the leaves. Fruit ripens 
in autumn. A small tree or shrub. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds, as recommended for Ash^ 

Uses. — Valuable for variety in ornamental planting. Very 
hardy at the Minnesota Experiment Station. 

Varieties. — 

Acer tartaricum ginnala. 

This has mostly three-lobed leaves, which are longer than 
those of the species. 



P.OXELDER. 



:\\: 




Plate 55. Acer trcgundo. Boxelder. 

I. Flowering branch from staniinate tree, one-half natural size. 2. 
Flowering branch from pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Diagram 
of flower. 4. tjtaminate Hower. 5. I'istillate flower. 6. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of ovary, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 8. 
Longitudinal section of fruit, one-hall natural size. 9. Embryo, enlarged. 



348 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Acer negundo. {Xt\i;i(ndo accrouhs.) Boxelder. Ash- 
leaf Maple. 

Leaves opposite, pinnately compound with three to five 
leaflets. Flowers dioecious, apetalous small, greenish, appear- 
ing just before or with the leaves. The seeds are oval in form, 
ripen in autumn, and hang on the trees until winter in this sec- 
tion. Many trees bear fruits that to outward appearance con- 
tain perfect seeds but which upon examination will be found 
to be empty seed vessels. 

Distribution. — One of the most widely distributed and hardi- 
est trees of North America, ranging from the valley of the Sas- 
katchewan to Florida and Texas and from Vermont to the east- 
ern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. In the Minnesota river 
bottoms this tree grows seventy feet high and three feet in 
diameter, while in severe locations it becomes a low tushy tree. 

Propagation. — By seeds sown as soon as ripe in the fall or 
stratified over winter and sown in the spring. 

Properties of ivood. — Light, soft, close grained, but weak. It 
is creamy white, with thick, hardly distinguishable sapwood. 
Specific gravity 0.4328; weight of a cubic foot 26.97 pounds. 

Uses. — The Boxelder is one of the hardiest of trees, and 
is highly esteemed for street and lawn planting and for wind- 
breaks in severe locations. It has, however, been too often 
planted where the White Elm or Green Ash should have been 
used. The wood makes good fuel; it is sometimes used for 
interior finishing, woodenware, paper pulp, etc. Maple sugar 
is sometimes made from this tree, though the sap is not so rich 
in sugar as the sap of the Sugar Maple. 



HIPPOCASTANACEAE. BUCKEYE FAMILY. 

An order consisting of two genera, the following of which 
contains about fifteen species natives of America and Asia. 
None are native of Minnesota. 

Genus ^SCUI^US. 

Leaves opposite, digitate, three to nine-foliate. Flowers in a 
terminal dense panicle, often polygamous, most of them with 



HORSE CHESTNUT.- 349 

imperfect pistils, and only those near the base of the branches 
of the inflorescence perfect and fertile; calyx tubular, five-lobed, 
often oblique or swollen at the base; petals four or five; more 
or less unequal with claws; stamens five to eight; ovary three- 
celled with two ovules in each cell. Fruit a roundish leathery 
pod, three-celled and three-seeded or usually by suppression one 
or two-celled and one or two-seeded, the remnants of the 
abortive cells and seeds commonly visible in the ripened pods, 
seeds one to one and one-half inches broad, with a hard chestnut 
brown coat; embryo filling the seed; cotyledons very thick and 
fleshy. The large seeds of both species contain a large amount 
of starch, but present with it is a bitter principle, esculine, which 
renders them unfit for food for man, although they are some- 
times fed to sheep, goats and swine. This bitter principle may 
be removed by repeated washings in pure water, and were it 
not for the cost of the operation the nuts could be made a 
valuable food for man. 

Propagation.-'— Both species here described are easily propa- 
gated by seeds, which should generally be sown in autumn, 
for they soon lose their vitality; also, by layers made in spring 
or fall. The varieties may be grown by grafting. 

-3Esculus hippocastanum. Horse Chestnut. 

Leaves made up of five to seven (generally seven) leaflets. 
Inflorescence large and conspicuous. Petals five, spreading, 
white, spotted with purple and yellow. A large tree, with round 
top, large sticky buds and very dense foliage. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — Described under genus. 

Properties of zvood. — Light, soft, easily worked, light-colored, 
not durable in contact with the soil. 

Uses. — The Horse Chestnut is used in the Eastern and 
Central states as a shade tree. It is not sufficiently hardy for 
general planting in this state, and should never be used except 
in very favorable locations in southern Minnesota. The bark 
has been used in tanning and as a substitute for cinchona in 
the treatment of fevers and in homeopathic remedies. 



350 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate s6. AlscuIus glabra. Ohio Buckeye. 

I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower. 3. 
Longitudinal section of staminate flower, natural size. 4. Longitudinal 
section of pistillate flower, natural size. 5. Transverse sections of pistil, 
enlarged. 6. Longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 7. Portion of sum- 
mer branch, one-half natural size. 8. P'ruit with portion removed, one- 
half natural size. g. Longitvidmal section of seed, one-half natural size. 
10. Winter bud, one-half natural size. 



BUCKTHORN. "-'l 

^sculus glabra. Ohio Buckeye. Fetid Buckeye. 

Leaves made up of five lu seven (generally five) leaflets. 
Inflorescence appearing with the leaves, five to six inches long, 
not large and showy like the Horse Chestnut. Stamens usually 
seven, curved, longer than the pale yellow-green corolla: petals 
four, upright. Buds large, not sticky. Tree generally not 
more than thirty feet high. 

Distribution. — Pennsylvania, south to northern Alabama and 
west to southern Iowa, central Kansas and Indian Territory. 

Propagation. — Described under genus. 

Properties of tvood. — Light, soft, close grained but not strong, 
often blemished by dark lines of decay; nearly white with thin, 
darker colored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.4542; weight of a 
cubic foot 28.31 pounds. 

f7j«.— The Ohio Buckeye is much hardier than the Horse 
Chestnut, and stands fairly well in this section as far north as 
St. Paul, where there are some very good small specimens in 
the parks. It is of value to give variety to ornamental plant- 
ings. The wood is used in the manufacture of wooden ware, 
paper pulp and artificial limbs. For the latter purjjose it is 
preferred to that of all other American trees. 



RHAMNACEAE. BUCKTHORN FAMILY. 

Genus RHAMNUS. 

We have no nati\'c species of importance in this genus. 7?. 
catliartieus, a foreign species, is so valuable as an ornamental 
shrub that it is here described. 

Rhamnus catharticus. Buckthorn. English IJuckthorn. 

Leaves ovate, minutely serrate, opposite or nearly so. Flow- 
ers usually dioecious, small, greenish. Fruit a three to four 
seeded black berry, hanging on the branches all winter. A 
shrub or small tree with thorny branchlets. 

Distribution. — Throughout northern Europe, where it is na- 
tive. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which should be gathered in autumn, 
kept stratified over winter, and planted in the spring or by 



3r.2 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 








Plate 57. Rhanmus catharlicus. Buckthorn. 

I. Flowering branch from staminate plant, one-half natural^ size. 2. 
Flowering branch from pistillate plant, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate 
flower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of staminate flower, enlarged. 
5. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Longitudinal section of pistillate flower, 
enlarged. 7. Cross section of ovary. 8. Single fruit, one-half natural size. 
9. Single fruit with a part removed to show nutlets. 10. Cross section of 
seed. Ti. Embryo. 12. View of grounds showing the use of Buckthorn 
for a hedge. 



IJASSWOOD. 3.'i.'*. 

layers. If the fruit is allowed to hanjj; on the bushes until 
spring in this section many of the seeds may be injured. 

I'scs. — The Buckthorn is used largely for hedges, for which 
purpose it is one of the hardiest, thriftiest and cleanest plants 
that can be used in this section. It bears pruning well, and 
hedges of it can be made very ornamental. As single specimens 
it is desirable for park planting and for screens. The seeds 
and innerhark possess medicinal (lualities. 



TILIACEAE. LINDEN FAMILY. 

A family of about lliirty-five genera and 245 species, widely 
distributed in warm and tropical regions, a few in the temperate 
zone. 

Genus TII^IA. 

A genus of alxnit twelve species, only one of wliich is fomid 
in Minnesota. They are all handsome, valuable trees, with 
soft white wood. 

Leaves alternate, more or less heart-shaped, often soft and 
downy. Flowers with five spatulate, oblong petals, cream col- 
ored, in small cymes or clusters, hanging on an axillary, slender 
peduncle, which is attached to a long, slender and thin leaf-like 
bract. Fruit a small globular nut, one-celled, one or two 
seeded, attached to the leaf-like bract and ripening in autumn. 
The flowers are fragrant, and yield a large quantity of clear, 
white, delicately flavored honey. The European Linden (T. 
7'ulgaris) is mentioned here as being *one of promising value 
for cultivation in this section. 

Tilia americana. Basswood. American Linden. White 
Wood. JJeetree. 

Leaves large, alternate, nearly round or more or less heart- 
shaped, commonly oblique at the base, serrate abruptly pointed, 
green on both sides and glabrous, or nearly so. Flowers yel- 
iowish-white, conspicuous, fragrant, appearing in June. Tree 
large, often attaining a height of seventy feet and a diameter 
of three feet. The bark of the trunk is furrowed, and its light 

23 



354 



TREES OF MINNESOTA. 




Plate 5?. Tilia americana. Basswocd. 



I. Flowering brancli, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower. 3. 
A flower witfi two sepals and two petals removed. 4. A cluster of stamens 
with their petaloid scale, enlarged. 5. A stamen, enlarged. 6. Pistil, 
showing longitudinal section of ovary, enlarged. 7. Cross section of ovary, 
enlarged. 8. Cluster of truit separated irom bract. 9. Cross section of 
fruit: 10. Embryo, showing 5-lol3ed cotyledons. , 



BASSWOOD. snri 

brown siiriacc is broken into small, tliin scales. The bark on 
the young growth is light gray, and gradually becomes dark and 
finally brown. Very few varieties of this species are cultivated. 

Distribution. — It is found from New Brunswick west to 
Assiniboia and south to Georgia and Texas. In ]\Iinnesota the 
Basswoovl is generally comnun throughout the state, and is 
very abundant in the Big Woods. 

Propagation.— The Basswood is generally grown from the 
seeds, which even when stratified and exposed to frost the first 
winter will often fail to start until a year from the following 
spring. It may also be grown from layers, and from cuttings 
of the younger wood by using the solar pit. It sprouts readily 
from the stump if cut in winter, and renews itself very satis- 
factorily in this way. It may also be grafted. 

Properties of ivood. — Light, soft, tough, close grained, com- 
pact and easily worked. The sapwood is very thick, and when 
properly seasoned is nearly white in color; but generally it 
can hardly be distinguished from the light brown heartwood. 
It warps badly when exposed to weather, and rots quickly when 
in contact with moisture. The specific gravity is 0.4525; weight 
of a cubic foot 28.20 pounds. 

Uses. — The Basswood is a good street and lawn tree in suita- 
ble locations, taking on a very beautiful form, but is not nearly 
so much used for this purpose as it should be. It is very hardy, 
and resists drouth well, and is desirable in timber plantings in 
this section. Newly transplanted street trees of this species 
are liable to injury from sunscald in this section until they are 
well established and for this reason should have their trunks 
protected from the sun for several years after they are set out. 

The wood is largely sawed into lumber, and under the name 
of whitewood is used in the manufacture of cheap furniture. 
wooden ware, carriage boxes, etc., for interior finishing and a 
variety of other purposes such as churns and butter workers, 
cheese boxes, bee hives, measures, grape and fruit baskets, 
boxes, packing, tool handles, map rolls, toothpicks, musical in- 
struments, penholders, step ladders, baseball bats and artificial 
limbs, and toys. It is also used for paper pulp, but makes an 
inferior quality of paper. The inner bark, known as bast, is 
occasionally made into coarse cordage and matting. The manu- 
facture of these latter materials from European Linden has been 



356 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

conducted on a large scale in Europe, buf has never attained 
any importance in the United States. The bast fiber is ob- 
tained by stripping the bark from the trees in the spring and 
soaking it until the mucilage that binds the layers together is 
soaked out. 

Tilia vulgaris. Ktiropean Basswood. European Linden. 

Native of northern Europe, forming a large tree. The wood 
of this species is much like that of the American Basswood. 
The leaves, however, are smaller, and more regularly heart 
shaped. "• The tree is compact in habit, and has numerous short, 
rather slender reddish twigs. There are many varieties. This 
species has been doing very well for about seven years in the 
forest plantation at the Minnesota Experiment Station, and 
seems to be of some value for this section. The varieties of 
the broad-leaved European. Linden (T. Platyphyllos) have failed 
in this section. 



ELAEAGNACEAE. OLEASTER FAMILY. 

Genus Elv^AGNUS. 

Shrubs or trees, silvery-scurfy or stellate pubescent with en- 
tire leaves and perfect or polygamous flowers. The lower part 
of the perianth of fertile flowers incloses the ovary, and ripens 
into a fleshy or mealy mass around the akene-like true fruit. 
The upper part is four-cleft and deciduous. Corolla none; 
stamens four, borne on the tube of the perianth. 

^laeagnus angustifolia. Russian Olive. 

Leaves narrowly lanceolate, two to three inches long, white- 
scurfy on lowfer side, stellate pubescent on the upper. Perianth 
whitish outside and yellowish inside. 

Distribution. — Europe and Asia. 

Propagation. — By seeds, which grow .readily, by layers and 
by autumn-made cuttings. 

Uses. — The Russian Olive is a very hardy small ornamental 
tree of very pretty habit, chiefly valued for the contrast it gives 



RUSSIAN OIJVI" 



357 



■■■'•••■ V^, 5 




riate 59. Elwaguus aiigustifolia. Russian CMive. 

I. l'"Joweritig branch, natural si/.e. 2. Perfect flower, enlarged. 3. 
I'erfect flower with a part of corolla and stamens removed, enlarged. 4. 
Upper part of pistil showing style and stigma, enlarged. 5. Corolla, dis- 
played, cnl'argcd. 6. Stammale flower with a portion removed, showing 
rudimentary pistil, enlarged. 7. Portion of branch bearing fruit, natural 
size. t?. Longitudinal section of fruil, natural size. 9. Embryo, displayed. 
10. I'ortion ol leaf showing stellate pubescence on upper surface. 11. Gen- 
eral view of tree. 



^08 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

to plantings. It has proved a very satisfactory tree in this 
section, and has endured drouth well at the Minnesota Experi- 
ment Station and at the Coteau Farm in Lyon county, Minne- 
sota, and in South Dakota. 



OLEACEAE. OLIVE FAMILY. 

Genus FRAXINUS. 

Leaves opposite, petioled, odd-pinnate with three to fifteen 
toothed or entire leaflets. Flowers small, dioecious or polyga- 
mous and apetalous in racemes or panicles from the axils of 
last year's leaves; stamens two; ovary two-celled. Fruit a 
flattened samara, winged at the apex, usually one-seeded. 

Propagation. — By seed, which may be sown as gathered in 
autumn, or which may be stratified over winter and sown in 
in the spring. A good way to keep' these seeds over winter is 
to place them on the surface of a garden walk, putting a box 
over them and cutting a trench around the box to keep the 
water away. They will not grow if kept too dry. 

Fraxinus americana. White Ash. 

Leaves with seven to nine leaflets, which are usually rounded 
at the base and generally entire in outline or very slightly ser- 
rate. Flowers dioecious, appearing with or rather before the 
leaves. Fruit ripe in autumn, cylindrical and winged at one 
end and surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx. The 
bark on the young twigs is rather dark, nearly smooth and free 
from spots. A large and valuable tree, commonly confounded 
in this section with the Green Ash and the Red Ash, both of 
which, however, are smaller trees and much hardier, produce 
seed at an earlier age and in larger ciuantities, and altogether 
are better adapted to prairie planting than the White Ash. 

Distribution.— Fvom Nova Scotia west to northern Minne- 
sot.a and eastern Nebraska and south to northern Florida and 
Texas. In Minnesota the White Ash appears to be a rare tree. 
In the western part of the state and in the Dakotas it is wholly 
replaced by Green Ash, or what secn's to be a hopeless mixture 
of Green Ash and Red ."Xsh. 



ASH. 



351) 




Plate 60. Fiaxiiins nwu»',t"o/;<j. White Ash. 

1. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Staminate flower, 
enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of ovary, 
enlarged. 6. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. -. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of fruit, one-half natural size. 8. Seed, !vvo-thirds natural size. 9. 
Embryo, natural size. 10. Winter buds, one-1 alf natural size. 11. Leaf, 
one-half natural size. 



360 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — See genus. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained and 
tough, ahhough brittle when old; brown, with thick, lighter col- 
ored sapwood. Specific gravity 0.6543; weight of a cubic foot 
40.77 pounds. 

Uses. — The White Ash is a good ornamental tree in spite of 
its late foliage, and is desirable for timber belts in the milder 
portions of this section, but on the prairies does not grow as 
fast as the Green Ash. The wood is of less value when grown 
here than when grown in the Northeastern States. It is used 
in immense quantities in the manufacture of agricultural imple- 
ments, carriages and furniture, for the interior finishing of build- 
ings, and for any purpose where a light-colored, tough wood 
is needed. It is manufactured into baseball bats, lawn tennis 
racquets, polo mallets, tool handles, crutches, step ladders, tri- 
pods, churns, tubs and pails. The wood of what is termed sec- 
ond growth trees, i. e.,. those springing up after the original 
forest has been removed or from seed scattered in open fields, 
is usually superior in toughness to the first growth or large 
trees. The inner bark of the White Ash has some medicinal 
properties and is used in homeopathic practice. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica. [F. pubcscens.) Red Ash. 

Leaflets oblong-lanceolate to ovate, mostly coarsely serrate, 
velvety pubescent on their lower surface like the yoimg shoots. 
Flowers dioecious; calyx present and persistent in the fruit. 
This tree is easily distinguished in the Eastern States, but in 
this section it merges into the Green Ash, and is often difficult 
to distinguish from it. 

Distribution. — It has about the same range as the Green Ash, 
but is less common west of the Mississippi river. 

Propagation. — See genus. 

Properties of zvood. — Heavy, hard, rather strong and brittle 
and coarse grained; light brown, with thick lighter colored sap- 
wood streaked with yellow. Specific gravity 0.6215; weight of 
a cubic foot 38.96 pounds. 

Uses. — In this section the Red Ash is used for planting the 
same as Green Ash. The wood is often substituted for that 
of the White Ash, which is much more valuable. 



. ASH. 301 

Fraxinus lanceolata. (/•". virhiis.) Green Ash. 

The Green Ash closely resembles the Red Ash, from which 
it is distinguished in extreme forms by its glabrous leaves and 
branchlets and by its rather narrower and shorter and usually 
more serrate leaves, which are lustrous and bright green on both 
surfaces. However, in western Minnesota and the Dakotas 
these two species run together, and are often indistinguishable. 
The flowers and fruit of the two species are alike, although 
many forms occur on each. Professor Sargent regards the 
Green Ash as a variety of the Red Ash. 

"The bark on the preceding year's growth of the Green Ash 
is noticeably lighter colored than that of the White Ash, and 
shows many more rather lighter spots or warts. The leaflets 
are usually strongly serrate. The leaves are bright dark green 
in color, although somewhat lighter below. The young growth 
of new wood is usually smooth and glabrous, while the mid 
veins of the leaves frequently show some pubescence on the 
lower side." (L. R. Moyer.) 

Distribution. — From the shores of Lake Chaniplain west to 
the valley of the Saskatchewan and eastern range of the Rocky 
Mountains and south to Florida, Texas and .\rizona. In Min- 
nesota one of the most common trees along water courses in 
the western part of the state. It is probable that about all the 
Ash in western Minnesota and the Dakotas is Green Ash, or 
a hopeless mixture of it with Red Ash. 

Propagation. — The Green Ash grows readily from seeds, as 
described under genus. 

Properties of uood. — Hard, strong, brittle and rather coarse 
grained; it is brown, with thicker, lighter colored sapwood. 
Specific gravity is 0.7117; weight of a cubic foot 44.35 pounds. 

Uses. — The Green Ash is one of the hardiest trees known, 
and is very valuable for windbreaks and ornamental plantings 
on the prairies of Minnesota and the Dakotas, and through- 
out this section should often take the place of the Cottonwood. 
Its great hardiness against cold and drouth, its easy propaga- 
tion from seed and its rapid growth make it especially fitted for 
general planting. The wood is used for the same purposes as 
White Ash. but is of inferior quality. 



3(32 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

Fraxinus nigra. (/■'. scnnbiici/olia.) Black Ash. Swamp 
Ash. Hoop Ash. 

Flowers dioecious or polygamous without calj'x. Leaflets 
seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; the lateral 
sessile. It naturally inhabits cold, wet swamps, and the low 
banks of streams and lakes. Generally a small, slender tree. 
The bruised foliage exhales the odor of Elder. 

Distribution.- — Cold swamps and low banks of streams from 
Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Virginia and Arkansas. 
In Minnesota frequent throughout the state. 

Propagation. — As described under genus, except that seeds of 
this are different from those of other native species in not grow- 
ing the first season after planting, but must be kept stratified 
for one year. 

Properties of ivood. — The Black Ash is heavy, rather soft, not 
strong, tough, coarse grained, durable in contact with the soil 
and easily separated into thin layers. It is dark brown, with 
thin light brown or often nearly white sapwood. The specific 
gravity is 0.631S; weight of a cubic foot 39.37 pounds. 

Uses. — The Black Ash is of very little value for planting, 
but might sometimes be used to advantage in wet lands. It is 
a slow grower and short lived in our prairie soils. It is used 
extensively in the manufacture of furniture, for interior finish- 
ing, barrel, tub and pail hoops, baskets and chair seats. For 
this latter purpose the wood is split in as many layers as there 
are annual rings, which may be done very readily. There are 
peculiar excrescences popularly known as knots or "burls" that 
form on the Black Ash, and sometimes these grow as large as 
a bushel basket or larger. They are a sort of dwarfed branches. 
It has been found that when these "burls" are properly sawed 
they show a pretty curly grain, and make very desirable veneer- 
ing for furniture and for interior finishing, and they are sought 
after for this purpose. However, in this section the "burls" 
seldom if ever grow to sufficient size to become of commercial 
importance. 



ASH 



363 




Plate 6i. b'raxinus nigra. Black Ash. 

I. Flowering branch of staminate tree, one-half natural size. 2. Flow- 
ering branch of pistillate tree, one-half natural size. 3. Pistillate flower 
showing rudimentary stamens, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of ovary, 
enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. Longitudinal sec- 
tion of fruit, one-half natural size. 7. Lnibryo. 8. Winter branchlet, one- 
half natural size. 



3G4 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 



BIGNONIACEAE. BIGNONIA FAMILY. 

Genus CATAI/PA. 

A genus of four or five species of trees, natives of the West 
Indies, North America, Japan and China. Leaves simple, op- 
posite or in whorls of three. Flowers in terminal panicles; 
calyx deeply two-lipped; corolla inflated, bell-shaped, the five- 
lobed border more or less two-lipped and wavy. Fruit a long 
slender hanging pod; seed, two-winged with silky fringe. 

Catalpa speciosa. Hardy Catalpa. Western Catalpa. 

Leaves large, opposite or in threes, heart-shaped at base, 
long-pointed, thick, firm, dark green above, falling after the 
first severe autumn frost. Flowers appear in June in large 
panicles, very conspicuous and pretty; corolla about two inches 
long, nearly white, faintly spotted, the lower lobes notched; 
calyx purple. Fruit nine to twenty inches long, about one-half 
inch in diameter at the middle and tapering towards both ends. 
It ripens in autumn, generally remains on the tree tintil spring, 
and then splits into two concave valves. The seed is light 
brown, about an inch long and one-third of an inch wide; the 
wings are rounded at the ends and terminate with a fringe of 
silky hairs. The ends of the branches die in winter without 
forming a terminal bud. A large and important tree in the 
forests within its range, where it attains a height of over lOO 
feet and a diameter of three to four and one-half feet. 

Disti-ibution.- — Borders of streams and lakes and fertile and 
inundated bottom lands in southern Illinois and Indiana, west- 
ern Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri and north- 
eastern Arkansas. 

Propagation. — By seeds, and it is said by cuttings. 

Properties of ivood. — Soft, light, not strong, coarse grained, 
very durable in contact with soil. Specific gravity 0.4165; 
weight of a cubic foot 25.96 pounds. 

Uses. — The Hardy Catalpa is not a very hardy tree in this 
section, and probably most of the specimens of it growing north 
of central Iowa are more or less injured by our winters; but 
they often hold on well in favorable locations as far north as St. 
Paul and Minneapolis, and form good small trees. They are 



HARDY CAT ALP A. 



365 




Plate 62. Catalpa si>ec\osa. ITardy Catalpa. 

I. Panicle of flowers, one-half natural size. 2. Carolla, displayed, 
showing stamens, or.e-lialf natural size. 3. Single fruit, one-half natural 
size. 4. Seed, or.elialf natural size. 5, Longitudinal section of seed, one- 
half natural size. 



3GG TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

occasionally killed to the ground, but generally renew them- 
selves by sprouts from the roots. The Catalpa is, however, 
unfit for a street tree in Minnesota; but may often be used in 
protected locations in parks and lawns, where it is valuable for 
variety in foliage and for its -beautiful flower clusters. It is of 
remarkably rapid growth when young and has been used in 
some of the most successful tree plantings that have been made 
in Kansas and southern Iowa. The wood is used for railway 
ties, fence posts and rails, and occasionally for furniture and 
inside finish of houses. 

The Hardy or Western Catalpa was for a long time con- 
founded with the Catalpa of the Eastern States {C. bignonioidcs), 
which is not nearly so hardy. 



CAPRIFOLIACEAE. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. 

A family of a few hundred species, including such well-known 
plants as the common Elder (Sambucus), the Snowberry (Sym- 
phoricarpus) and the Honeysuckle (Lonicera). 

Genus VIBURNUM. 

Small trees or shrubs with simple opposite leaves. Flowers 
perfect or neutral; calyx equally five-toothed, persistent; corolla 
five-lobed; stamens five; ovary inferior, one-celled. Fruit a 
dry or fleshy one-seeded drupe; seed flattened. This genus 
includes the well-known Snowball, which is a sterile form of 
the Highbush Cranberry (I'iburmim opnlns). 

Viburnum lentago. Sheepberry. Black Haw. Nanny- 
berry. 

Leaves ovate-acuminate, petioles usually winged. Flowers 
perfect, in flat clusters from three to five inches across, slightly 
fragrant, appearing the latter part of May or first of June in 
this section; corolla cream-colored or nearly white, one-fourth 
inch across when open; filament thick; stigma broad. Fruit 
borne in drooping clusters, oval, about one-half inch long, 



SHHF.rBKRRV. 



3U7 










Plate 63. Viburnum lentago. Sheepberry. 
I. Flowering branch, one-half natural size. 2. Diagram of flower, v 
!• lower, enlarged. 4. Longitudinal section of flower, the corolla and sta- 
mens removed, enlarged. 5. Fruiting branch, one-half natural size. 6. 
=:^H^ «" S-i ^"'^.c'lt'" o' {'•"■t, natural size. 7. Longitudinal section of 
seed. t>. bide view of stone. 9. Winter branchlet, one-half natural size 



308 TREES OF MINNESOTA. 

sweet, juicy, black or dark blue, thick-skinned, covered with a 
glaucous bloom, ripens in September. Within our range a 
broad bush but occasionally a small tree. 

Distribution.— Qxxthtc to the Saskatchewan, and south to 
Georgia and Missouri. Usually found in moist locations, es- 
pecially along river and lake shores, but not uncommon in 
thickets. 

Propagation.— ^y seed and by layers. The seeds should be 
stratified over winter before planting and often remain in the 
soil a year before starting. 

Properties of tcoorf.— Heavy, hard and close grained. Specific 
gravity 0.7303; weight of a cubic foot 45.51 pounds. 

Uses. — The Sheepberry is a good hardy ornamental shrub for 
park and lawn planting. It is esteemed for the abundance of 
its beautiful flowers, its vigorous growth, compact habit and 
its lustrous foliage, which takes on brilliant colors in autumn. 



"^ 



PART II!. 

A List of the Forest Trees 
of the United States. 



A LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TREES OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 



White Pine 


Pinus sirohus 






New England States and 






Georgia, Manitoba to New- 






foundland. 






Minnesota to New .England 
and Pennsylvania, Manitoba 




■ 






and Newfoundland. 


Pitch Pine 


Pinus rigida 


New Brunswick to Georgia, 
Ontario and Kentucky. 


Jack Pine ■ — 


Pin lis divaricala 


r>Iinnesola to New Brunswick, 






Hudson Bay. and northwest 






to Mackenzie River and the 






Rocky Mountains. 


I.ongleaf Pine 


Pinus paiusliis 


South Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts : Virginia to Texas. 


Shortleaf Pine 


Pinus ecliinala 


New York to Florida, Illinois, 
Missouri and Texas. 




Pinus helctophylla .. . 






coast regions: South Carol- 




, 


ina to Florida and I^ouisiana. 


I^oblolly Pine 


Pinus laeda 


Southeastern and Gulf States: 






New Jersey to Texas and 






Arkansas to Tennessee. 












I«ouisiana. 


Scrub Pine 


Pinus virginiana 


New York to South Carolina, 






Indiana and Alabama. 


Bull Pine 


Pinus ponderosa 


British Columbia to Mexico, 
Montana and Texas. 


Rock Pine 


Pinus pnnderosa scopu- 






loiuni 


Rockj- Mountains to Nebraska 
and Montana to Colorado. 






California: eastern slopes of 
.Sierra Nevadas and Oregon. 






Lodgepole Pine 


Pinus murrayana 


Alaska to California, Montana 
and New Mexico. 


Monterey Pine 


Pinus radiala 


South California coast. 


Silver Pine 










nia. 






Western Pacific slope: Oregon 
to California. 







372 FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



A LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TREES OF TPIE UNITED 
STATES.— Continued. 



lyimber Pine . . . 

Foxtail Pine 

Bristle-cone Pine 
Tamarack 

Western Inarch . . 
Black Spruce 

Red Spruce 

White Spruce . . . 



Engelmann Spruce. 
Sitka Spruce 



Hemlock 



Western Hemlock 
Douglas Spruce . . . 
Balsam Fir 



I<owland Fir 

White Fir... 

Amabilis Fir 
Noble Fir . . . 
Red Fir 



Pin lis flexilis 

Pinus balfoni iana. . 

Pinus aristata 

Lari.v laricina 

Larix occidenlalis . . 
Picea viai iaini 

Picea riibens 

Picea canadensis. . . . 

Picea engelnia7i>ii . . . 
Picea sitcliensis 

Tsuga canadensis. . . 



Tsiiga heteropliylla . . . 
Pseudotsuga taxifulia 
A hies balsa mea 



Abies g/andis . . 

Abies concojoy . . 

Abies amabilis . 
A bies nobilis . . . 
A bies magnifica 



Eastern slopes Rocky Moun- 
tains: Alberta to Texas, and 
Utah, Nevada, Arizona and 
California. 

California. 

Colorado to California. 

Minnesota to Illinois, New- 
foundland and I^abrador, 
and northwest to Great Bear 
I,ake and Mackenzie River. 

Montana to Oregon and Brit- 
ish Columbia. 

Minnesota to North Carolina, 
Hudson Bay, Mackenzie 
River and Rocky Mountains. 

Nova Scotia to North Carolina 
and Tennes.see. 

Minnesota to Maine, I,abrador 
and Hudson Bay, and Black 
Hills to Montana, British 
Columbia and Ala,ska. 

Arizona to British Columbia. 

Pacific coast; Alaska to Cali- 
fornia. 

Minnesota to Alleghany 
Mountains and south to Ala- 
bama; Nova Scotia and On- 
tario. 

Ala.ska to California and Mon- 
tana. 

British Columbia to California, 
Mexico, Montana to Texas. 

Minnesota and Iowa to New- 
foundland, Virginia, I<ab- 
rador, Hudson Bay and 
northwest to Great Bear 
l,ake legion and Rocky 
Mountains. 

Montana to Vancouver Island 
and California. 

Oregon to California, Colorado 
and New Mexico. 

Oregon to British Columbia. 

Washington to California. 

California: Mount Shasta and 
western slope Sierra Nev- 
adas. 



FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. ^^~'^ 



A I.IST OF THK MORE IMPORTANT TREES OF Till-; IMTED 
STATES.— Cow/Zwwt'rf. 



Bald Cypress . 
Big Tree 



Redwood 

Incense Cedar. 



Arborvitiu 



Taxodiu m distich u m . 

Se(jnoia 2vashingto- 
niana 



Sequoia semperviteiis. 
Libocedrus deciirrens . 

Thuja occidenlalis . ... 



Giant Arborvitie Thuja plicata 

White Cedar Channecyparis Ihyoides 



Port Orford Cedar 



Red Juniper. 



ChamcEcyparis laivso- 
iiiana 



Juiiiperui viiginiaiia. . 



Rocky M'nt'n Juniper Juniperus scopuloi um . 



Pacific Yew i Ta.rus brcvifolia 



Butternut 



Juglans cinctea . 



Black Walnut ' Juglans nigra 



Pecan 

Bitterimt 



Shaghark Hickory 

Shellhark Hickory 



Mocker Xut . 

Pignut 

Aspen 



Hicoria pecan . . . 
Hicoiia mininta . 



Hicoria ovala 

Hicoria laciniosa . 



Hicoria a I ha 

Hicoria glabra 

Populus tremuloides. 



Delaware to Florida, Texas 
and Missouri. 

California: western slope 
Sierra Nevadas. 

California coast ranges. 

Oregon to l<ower California 
and Nevada. 

Minnesota to l,ake Winnipeg, 
James Bay, Illinois, Norlli 
Carolina, New Brunswick 
and Nova Scotia. 

Alaska to California and Mon- 
tana. 

Coast region: Maine to Flor- 
ida, and Mississippi. 

Coast region : Oregon to Cal- 
ifornia. 

North Dakota to New Bruns- 
wick, Florida, Texas, Neb- 
raska and Indian Ter. 

Nebra.ska and Black Hills to 
Montana, British Columbia 
and Arizona. 

California to British Columbia 
and Montana. 

Minnesota and South Dakota 
to New Brunswick, Georgia 
and Arkansas. 

Minnesota to Ontario and 
Massachusetts, Florida and 
Texas. 

Iowa to Indiana, Alabama and 
Mexico. 

Minnesota to Maine, Florida 
and Texas. 

Same as Bittern ut. 

Iowa to New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, and Indian Ter. 

Ontario to Florida, Missouri 
and Texas. 

Maine to Florida, Nebraska 
and Texas. 

Alaska to I.abrador, Pennsyl- 
vania, Missouri and Mexico. 



;JT4 FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

A IvIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TREES OF THE UNITED 
^TA-fES.— Continued. 



L,argetooth Aspen 


Populus gyandidoitata 


North Dakota to Nova Scotia, 
North Carolina and Ten- 
nessee. 


Balm-of-Gilead 


PojmUis bahamifcra . . . 


Alaska to Newfoundland, New 
York and Nevada. ' 


Narrowleaf Cottonw'd 


Populus angustifolia . 


Assiniboia to Nevada, Arizona, 
New Mexico and Nebraska. 


Black Cottonwood 


Populus. ti ichocarpa . . . 


Alaska to California. 


Fremont Cottonwood . 


Pupulus freiiionlii 


California to Colorado, Texas 
and Mexico. 




Populus del to ides 


Quebec to Florida, Alberta 
and New Mexico. 






Be tula populifolia 


Nova vScotia to Delaware and 




I^ake Ontario. 




Belula papyrifcra 






vania and Washington. 




Betula nigra 


Minnesota to Massachusetts, 




Florida and Texas. 






Minnesota and Western On- 






tario to Newfoundland, 






North Carolina and Ten- 






nessee. 


Sweet Birch 


Belula lenta 


Rainy River to Newfoundland, 






Tennessee and Florida. 


Blue Beech 


Carpinus cai'oliiiia)ta . 


Minne.sota to Ouebec, Florida 




and Texas. 


Beech 


Fagus atiopunicea 


Wisconsin to Nova Scotia, 






Florida and Texas. 


Goldenl'f Chinquapin 


Castanopsis chryso- 






phylla 


Oregon to California. 
Pennsylvania to Florida, Mis- 
souri and Texas. 




Castauea ptiviila 




Chestnut 




Maine to Delaware, Michigan 






and Mississippi. 


White Oak 










and Texas. 


California White Oak 


Qucrcus lobata 


California. 


Post Oak 


Qtiercus minor 


Massachusetts to Florida, 




Nebraska and Texa.s. 


Bur Oak 


Quercus inacrocaj pa. . . 


Nova Scotia and Maine to 






Manitoba, Montana, Penn- 






sylvania and Texas. 


Chestnut Oak 


Quercus prinus 


In mountains from Maine to 
Alabama. 


Chin<iuapin Oak 


Quercus acuminata 


New York to Alabama, Neb- 
raska and Texas. 



FORKST TRKF.S OF THE UNITFD STATFS. 375 

A LIST OF THE MOKK IMPORTANT TREES OF THF: UNITED 

STATES.— Co«//« «<•</. 



Swamp White Oak . . . 


Qttercus plalanoides . . . 


Maine to Georgia, Iowa and 

Arkansas. 


Cow Oak 


QuercHs michauxii 


Delaware to Florida, Texas 
and Missouri. 


I.ive Oak 


Qiiercus virginiana . . . 


Shores from Virginia to Flor- 
ida. Te.xas, Mexico, Central 








America and Cuba. 


Canyon I,ive Oak 


Qiieicus chrysolepis. . . . 


Oregon to Mexico. 


Red Oak 










Georgia and Kansas. 


Scarlet Oak 


(Jiienus coccinea 


Minnesota to Maine, Neb- 
raska, Tennessee and North 
Carolina. 


Yellow Oak 


Quetcus velutina 


Minnesota to Maine, Florida 




and Texas. 




Quo cits digitala 


New Jersey to Florida, Illi- 
nois and Texas. 






QuercHS paluslris 






Virginia, Kansas and Indian 






Territory. 
Delaware to Florida, Missouri 


Water Oak 


Qiiercus nigra 






and Texas. 


Tanbark Oak 


Quercus densijlora 

U I mils crassi/olia 


Oregon to California. 
Miississippi to Arkansas and 
Mexico. 






Slippery Elm 


Ulmus pubescens 


North Dakota to Quebec, Flor- 
ida and Texas. 


White Elm 


Ulmus antericana 


Newfoundland to Rockv 






Mountains, Florida and 






Texas. 


Cork Elm 


Clmus racemosa 


Minnesota to Quebec, New 
Hampshire, Nebraska, Mis- 
souri and Tennessee. 


Wing Elm 




Virginia to Florida, Missouri 
and Texas. 




Hackberry 


Celt is occidenlalis 


Quebec to Massachusetts, Flor- 
ida, Texas, Washington and 
Nevada. 


Red Mulberry 








Florida, Nebraska, South 






Dakota and Texas. 




Toxylon pomiferum . . . 
Magnolia fwlida 




Magnolia 


North Carolina to Florida, 






Arkansas and Texas. 


Cucumber-tree 


Magnolia acuminata.. 


New York to Illinois. Alabama 
and Arkansas. 



l]7ij FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



A L,IST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TREES OF THE UNITED 
STXTTS,^.— Continued. 



Tulip-tree 


Liriodendron tulipifera 


Vermont and Rhode Island to 




Florida, Mississippi, Mich- 






igan and Arkansas. 


Sassafras 


Sassafras sassafras — 


Massachusetts to Florida, 




Iowa and Texas. 


Sweet Gviiii 


Liquidambar styra- 
cijiua 






Connecticut to Florida, Mis- 






souri and Texas. 


Svcaiiiore . 


Platanus occidenlalis . . 


Maine to Florida, Nebraska 




and Texas. 


Black Cherry 


Primus serotina 


North Dakota to Nova Scotia, 






Florida and Texas. 


Honey I^ocust 


Qleditsia iriacanthos. . . 


Minnesota to Pennsylvania 






and New York, Georgia, 






Nebraska and Texas. 


Coffeetree 


Gymnocladiis dioicus . . 


Minne-sota to New York, Neb- 




raska, Indian Territory and 






Tennes-see. 


Eoeust 


Robinia pscudacacia . . . 


Penn.sylvania to Georgia, Min- 




nesota, Arkansas and Indian 






Territory. 


American Holly 


Jlcx opaca 


Massachusetts to Florida, In- 




diana, Missouri and Texas. 


Oregon Maple 


Acer macropliylliim . . . 


Alaska to California 


Sugar Maple 


Acer saccharum 


North Dakota to Newfound- 
land, Texas and Florida. 


Silver Maple 


A cer sacchai in urn 


Minnesota and South Dakota 
to New Brunswick, Florida 
and Indian Territory. 


Red Maple 


Acer I'ubrii tn 


I^ake of the. Woods to New 




Brunswick, Florida and 






Texas. 


Boxelder 


Acer negtindo 


Vermont to Florida. Saskat- 






chewan and Texas. 


Ohio Buckeye 


Aesculus glabra 


Pennsylvania to Alabama, 




Iowa and Indian Territory. 


Yellow Buckeye 


Aesculus oclandra 


Pennsylvania to Alabama, 
Iowa and Texas. 


Basswood 


Tilia americana 


New Brunswick to Georgia, 




Alabama, Texas, Assiniboia. 


White Basswood 


Tilia heterophylla 


Pennsylvania to Florida, Illi- 
nois and Alabama. 


Black Gum 


Nyssa sylvalica 


Maine to Florida, Michigan 




and Texas. 


Cotton Gum 


Nyssa aguatica 


Virginia to Florida, Illinois 






and Texas. 



FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 377 



A IJST OI" THK MOKK IMPORTANT TREES OF THE INITED 
STATES. — r««//««rrf. 





Dioipyros virginiana . . 






and Texas. 


Blue Ash 


Fraxiuiis i/uadrangu- 






lata 


Minnesota to Michigan. Ar- 
kansas and Alabama. 


lilack Ash 


Fraxinits nigra 


Manitoba to Newfoundland, 
Arkansas and Virginia. 


White Ash 










Texas and Florida. 


Red Ash 


Ftaxin us pennsylva- 
nica 






North Dakota to New Bruns- 






wick, Kansas, Alabama and 






Florida. 


Green Ash 


Fiaxinus lanceolata . . . 


Vermont to Saskatchewan 
River, Florida, Texas and 
Arizona. 


Oregon Ash 


Fraxitius oregona 


Washington to California. 


Catalpa 


Catalpa catalpa 


Georgia, Florida, Alabama 
and Mississippi. 


Hardy Catalpa 


Catalpa spcxtosa 


Indiana to Tennessee, Mis- 
souri and Texas. 



GLOSSARY. 



Accretion. Growth or formation by external additions to the tree. 

Acorn. The fruit of an oak. 

Acuminate. Taper-pointed or long-pointed, (e. g. leaves of 

Willow.) 
Acute. Pointed, (e. g. leaves of Cork Elm.) 
Albumen. Food stored up in seed with embryo; endosperm. 
Alternate leaves. A single leaf at a node; not opposite, (e. g. 

Willow.) 
Altimeter. An instrument for taking grades, level and heights. 
Angle mirror. ) Instruments for turning of angles in subdividing 
Angle prism. ) land. 

Annual. Yearly; a plant which reaches maturity and dies at the 

end of a single season, (e. g. Pea, Wheat.) 
Annual ring. The layer of wood formed each year. (Page ii.) 
Anther. The pollen-containing sac; enlarged part of stamen. 
Apetalous. Without corolla, (e. g. Soft Maple, Oak.) 
Arboreous. Tree-like. 
Assimilation. In plants, the production of organic matter from 

inorganic matter. 
Axil. The angle formed by the junction of the leaf-blade, bract, 

petiole, pedicle or peduncle, with the branch or stalk from 

which it springs. 
Back-firing. The burning, under control, of material in front of 

a fire to prevent its spreading. 
Bark. A general term applied to all the tissues outside of the 

wood proper. (Fig. i.) 
Basal. Attached to the base. 
Basal area. The cross-sectional area of a tree near the ground, 

usually taken about four and one-half feet above ground to 

avoid the excessive swelling of the root buttresses. 
Bast. The woody fibrous tissue of the inner bark. (Page 355.) 



GLOSSARY. 370 

Baummesscr. An instrument for nicasurinfj; the height of the 
trees, height and diameter at any part on the stem of a 
standing tree. 

Berry. Botanically a tleshy fruif. (e. g. Grape, Currant.) 
Commonly applied to many kinds of fruits, (c. g. Straw- 
berry, Mulberry.) 

Blade of a leaf. The expanded portion; the wings. 

Blight. The dying without apparent cause of the tenderer parts 
of plants. 

Board-foot. The unit of board measure; equivalent to a board 
12 in. X 12 in. x I in. One cubic foot is considered as 
equivalent to ten board feet, allowing for waste in working. 

B. M. Abbreviation for board measure, (q. v.) 

Board-measure. (B. M.) The system used by lumbermen in 
which the board-foot (q. v.) is the unit. 

Bract. A much reduced leaf. 

Broad-leaved trees. Applies to trees whose leaves have a broad 
Hat surface, unlike the needle or awl-shaped leaves of the 
conifers. 

Budding. The operation and process of inserting a bud with the 
intention that it shall grow. 

Bud-division. A term including all methods of propagation ex- 
cept by seed. (e. g. Grafting, Layering, etc.) 

Bud-variety. A strange variety or form appearing without obvi- 
ous cause upon a plant or in cuttings or layers; a sport. 
A bud-variety springs from a bud in distinction from a 
seed-variety, which springs from a seed. 

Callus. The new and protruding tissue which forms over a 
wound as over the end of a cutting. 

Calyx. Outer circle of perianth, generally inconspicuous. 

Cambium. In trees and shrubs, the layer of new growing tissue 
between the bark and wood. 

Cants. A term used in mills to designate the pieces cut from the 
sides of a log and which are to be again cut inro quarter- 
sawed lumber. It is sometimes also applied to the squared 
centerpiece of the log. 

Carbon dioxide. A gas composed of one part of carbon to two 
parts of oxygen; carbonic acid gas. 

Carpel. A simple pistil, or one of the divisions of a compound 
pistil. 



380 GLOSSARY. 

Catkin. A scaly spike-like dense flower cluster, (e. g. Willow, 
Birch.) 

Cell. The anatomical unit of living tissues. 

Chlorophyll. The green coloring matter of plants; leaf-green. 

Ciliatc. Hairy on the margin. 

Cleft leaf. Cut into lobes somewhat more than half the depth of 
wings, (e. g. Silver Maple.) 

Compass. A magnetic needle used to determine directions in the 
woods. 

Compound leaf. One in which the blade or wings are composed 
of more than one part. (e. g. Ohio Buckeye, Mountain 
Ash.) 

Cone. The flower or fruit of a conifer. 

Conifer. A member of the Pine Family or Coniferje. 

Coniferous. Cone-bearing. 

Cooperage. The business of making wooden vessels, as casks, 
barrels, tubs. 

Cordate. Heart-shaped. 

Corolla. Inner series of the perianth; generally distinguished 
from the calyx by being of a color other than green. 

Corymb. A flat-topped flower cluster, in which the outer flowers 
open first, (e. g. Mountain Ash.) 

Cotyledon. One of the leaves of the embryo; a seed leaf. 

Cross staff head. An instrument for turning ofif angles in sur- 
veying land, consisting of an octagonal brass box with slits 
in the faces for sighting through. 

Crowded. Said of trees when so closely grown that the develop- 
ment of their lateral branches is interfered with. (Page 
129.) 

Crozvn of tree. See tree-crown. 

Cuttage. The practice or process of multiplying plants by means 
of cuttings. 

Cuttings. A piece of a leaf, branch, stem or root which when in- 
serted in moist material is capable of sending out roots 
and forming a new plant; a slip. (Page 86.) 

Cycle. One of the circles of a flower. 

Cymes. A flower cluster in which the central flowers open first 

Deciduous. Falling of¥; said of leaves that fall in autumn. 

Dehiscent. Said of fruits that open at regular lines. 



GLOSSARY. 381 

Delinquent tax lands. Lands on which taxes have not been paid. 
They are offered for sale at stated times after pubhc notice, 
and tracts which find no buyers revert to the state. 

Dentate. Toothed, with teeth pointing outward not forward. 

Diadelphons. Said of stamens when united into two groups. 

Dibber. A pointed instrument used for making holes. 

Dicotyledon. One of the class of plants with two seed leaves. 

Dicotyledonous. Having two cotyledons or seed leaves. 

Digitate. See palmate. 

Dioecious. Staminate and pistillate flowers borne on different 
plants. 

Distillation product. The substance obtained by the decomposi- 
tion of a compound. 

Divided. Said of leaves when the wings are cut into divisions 
down to base or midrib. 

Division. See bud-division. 

Drupe. A fruit with hard pit (endocarp) and soft exterior 
(exocarp). (e. g. Plum, Cherry, Peach.) 

Dry-rot. A kind of decay in wood. (Page 177.) 

Dust-blanket. A layer of loose earth on the surface of the 
ground. 

Embryo. The minature plant in the seed. 

Erosion. Wearing away. 

Evergreen. Holding leaves over winter until new leaves appear 
or longer. 

Family. In botanical classification, a group of plants thrown to- 
gether because of some natural common resemblances. 
Sometimes used synonymously with order. 

Filament. The stalk of the stamen. 

Firebreak. An opening, plowed strip of land, or anything which 
prevents the spread of fires in fcjrests or elsewhere. Page 
119.) 

Fircfalls. Applied to areas where the trees have fallen owing to 
their roots having been burned off'. 

Flozver. A part of the plant especially modified for the reproduc- 
tion of the plant by seed. 

Forest. A dense growth of trees. 

Forest floor. The decayed leaves and twigs which cover the soil 
in forests. (Page 24.) 



382 GLOSSARY. 

Frost-liardy. Said of trees, ihe new growth of whicli is not easily 
killed by frost. 

Frost-tender. Said of trees, the new growth of which is easily 
killed by frost. 

Fruit. The seed-containing area derived from a single flower. 

Fungi. Plural of fungus. 

Fungous. Pertaining to fungi. 

Fungus. A flowerless plant devoid of chlorophyll and drawing 
its nourishment from living organisms or decayed organic 
matter. 

Genera. Plural of genus. 

Generic name. The name of the genus to which the plant be- 
longs, and which with the name of the species forms the 
scientific name of the plant. 

Genus. In botanical classification, a group of plants having sev- 
eral or many natural common resemblances; a division of 
a family. 

Germination. The act or process by which a seed or spore gives 
rise to a new and independent plant. 

Glabrous. Smooth, not pubescent. 

Glauber salts. Sodium sulphate. 

Glaucous. Covered with a fine white powder as that on a cab- 
bage leaf. 

Graftage. A system of propagation comprising all methods by 
which plants are grown on roots of other plants. 

Grafting. The operation of inserting a cion in a plant. 

Grafting Wax. A protective substance used in covering the 
junction of a graft with the stock, or for the covering of 
wounds. Bailey's formula for a reliable wax: — Resin, four 
parts (by weight); beeswax, two parts; tallow, one part. 
Melt together and pour into a pail of cold water. Then 
grease the hands and pull the wax until it is nearly white. 

Hardy. Able to withstand a given climate. 

Ilccling-iii. The operation and process of temporarily covering 
the roots of plants to preserve them until wanted for 
permanent planting. (Page gO.) 

Ileiglit classes. The arrangement of trees into classes according 
to height. 

Herb. A plant not woody. 



GLOSSARY. 'iSS 

Herbaceous. Not woody; said of plants tliat die to the ground 

each year. 
florticullurc. The art and science of raising fruits, kitchen 

garden vegetables, .flowers and ornamental trees and 

shrubs. 
Huiinis. Decomposed organic matter in the soil. 
JJyhrid. IMant derived from a cross between plants of different 

species. 
Hybridizing. The operation or practice of crossing between 

species. 
Hypogyiious. Said of Howcrs when all parts arc free. (e. g. 

Buckeye). 
Hypsoinctcr. An instrument for taking heights of trees. 
Imbricated. Overlapped. 
Inarching. The operation and process of uniting contiguous 

plants or branches while the parts are both attached to 

their own roots. (Page 93.) 
Indchisccnt. Not opening at regular lines; not dehiscent. 
Indigenous. Native, i. e. growing naturally in a given region. 
Inferior. Said of ovary when all the floral parts arc attached 

above it. (c. g. Iowa Crab.) 
Inflorescence. A f]ower cluster; mode of arrangement of flowers. 
Insecticide. A substance employed to destroy insects. 
Inz'olucre. A bract or series of bracts subtending a flower-cluster 

or fruit-cluster. 
Irregular. Said of flowers Avhen the separate parts of each cycle 

are not of the same size and shape, fe. g. Locust.) 
lacflh staff. .\ pointed staff which may be pushed into the 

ground and on which instruments are mounted for taking 

observations. 
Joinery. The art of framing the finishing work, making perma- 
nent wooden fittings and covering rough lumber. 
Kerf. The cut made by the saw, or the width of such cut. 
Lanceolate. Said of leaves when from four to six times as long as 

jjroad, the broadest part below the middle and tapering 

upward or both upward and downward, (e. g. Black 

Willow.) 
Larva, (pi. larvae) The worm-like stage of insects. 
Layer. A shoot which, while attached to the plant, takes root 

at one or more places and forms a new plant. (Page 8y.) 



384 GLOSSARY. 

Leaf-mould. Decayed leaves and other organic matter constitut- 
ing the forest floor. 
Leaflet. One of the wing divisions of a compound leaf. 
Leather board. A material made from wood pulp and which re- 
sembles leather in color and texture. 
Legume. A simple pod opening by both ventral and dorsal 

sutures; fruit of pea family, (e. g. Locust.) 
Leguminous. Pertaining to the family Leguminosae; said of 

plants bearing legumes. 
Loam. Friable, mellow, rich soil containing much humus. 
Lobe. A projection or division of a leaf not more than half the 

depth of the wing. 
Lyrate. A pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate outline with 

the end lobe large and roundish and the lower lobes small, 

(e. g. Bur Oak.) 
Manure. Plant food; any substance which promotes plant 

growth. 
Monadelphous. Said of stamens when united by their filaments 

in one group. 
Mono. Prefix meaning one. 
Monoecious. Both staminate and pistillate flowers borne on the 

same plant, (e. g. Black Walnut.) 
Mound-layering. (Page 89.) 
Mtdch. Any loose material that protects the soil from frost or 

evaporation. 
Muskeg. A term commonly applied to sphagnum swamps by the 

Indians and woodsmen of northern Minnesota. 
Narrozv-leaved trees. Trees with needle or awl-shaped leaves, 

which expose no great surface to the light. 
Nursery. A plot of ground set apart for the raising of plants 

that are to be transplanted elsewhere. An establishment 

for the raising of plants. 
Obcordaie. The reverse of cordate. 
Oblanceolate. The reverse of lanceolate. 

Oblong. About twice as long as broad with nearly parallel sides. 
Obovate. The reverse of ovate. 

Obtuse. Blunt, not acute, {e. g. leaflets of Locust.) 
Odd-pinnate. Applied to pinnately compound leaves having a 

terminal leaflet. (e. g. Ash.) 



GLOSSARY. 3S.J 

Open grozvu. Said of trees when not grown sufficiently close to 

other trees to be influenced by them. 
Ovary. The lower or enlarged part of the pistil bearing the 

ovules. 
Ovate. About twice as long as broad and tapering from near 

the base to the apex. (c. g. leaves of Balm of Cilead.) 
Ovoid. Egg-shaped. 
Ovule. A rudimentary seed. 
Paliiiate. Said of parts originating from a common point, as the 

veins, lobes or divisions of a leaf. (e. g. Leaflets of Ohio 

Buckeye.) 
Panicle. A loose flower cluster, (e. g. White Ash, page 359.) 
Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, applied to flowers of the pea 

family, (e. g. Locust, page 334.) 
Paraboloid. The figure of revolution formed by turning a paralj- 

ola about its axis. 
Parasite. A plant or animal that lives upon and obtains its food 

from other living plants or animals. 
Parietal placenta. A placenta upon the wall of the ovary, (e. g. 

Cofifeetree, page ^32.) 
Parted. Separated nearly to the base. 
Pedicel. A stalk of a single flower of a flower cluster. 
Peduncle. A stalk of a solitary flower or the common stalk of a 

flower cluster. 
Pendulous. Hanging. 
Penta. Prefix, meaning five. 
Perennial. A plant living more than two years. 
Perfect flower. One having both essential organs, i. e. stp.nicns 

and pistil, (e. g. Iowa Crab, page 313.) 
Perianth. The floral envelopes. 
Pericarp. The ripened ovary: the seed vessel. 
Persistent. Remaining beyond the period when such jvarts gen- 
erally fall. 
Petal. One of the divisions of a corolla. 
Petiole. Leaf-stalk. 
Pinnate. Parts arranged on opposite sides of a main axis. (e. 

g. Leaflets of Mountain Ash.) 
Pinnatifid. Pinnately lobed or cleft. (,c. g. leaves of Red Oak, 

page 296.) 

25 



38<i GLOSSARY. 

Pinnule. A secondary leaflet in a pinnately decompound leaf, 
(e. g. Honey Locust.) 

Pistil. The part of the flower bearing the ovules and which 
ripens into the fruit. 

Pistillate. Bearing pistils but no fertile stamens. Often used 
synonymously with female. 

Placenta. Place of attachment of ovules in an ovary. 

Pollen. Small spores produced by the anthers for the fertiliza- 
tion of the ovules. 

Pollination. The carrying of pollen from the anther to the 
stigma. 

Polygamous. Perfect and unisexual flowers borne on the same 
plant. 

Pome. Fruit represented by the Apple, Thorn, Quince, etc. 

Propagation. The multiplication of plants. 

Pruning. The removing of branches from a plant to improve its 
general appearance or to check or encourage growth. 

Pubescent. Covered with fine short hairs. 

Quarter saunng. The sawing on the radius, but as it is not prac- 
ticable to do this exactly, the log is first quartered and 
then sawed into boards, cutting them alternately from 
each face of the quarter of the log. Sawed in this way the 
grain of the wood does not show nearly so conspicuously 
and varied as in that tangentially sawed, but the grain is 
narrower, and the wood sawed in this way does not warp 
nearly so much as that tangentially sawed, and is much 
more expensive. (Page i68.) 

Raceme. A simple iniiorescence in which the flowers are on 
pedicels, and the lower open first, (e. g. Black Cherry, 
page 324.) 

Ranging poles. Straight poles about eight feet long used by sur- 
veyors to indicate the direction of a line which is being 
measured or the position of points to be located. 

Regular. Parts of each cycle of the perianth alike, (e. g. Bird 
Cherry.) 

Root. A part of the plant wiiich absorbs nourishment for the 
plant, or serves as a support. It may be underground or 
aerial. 

Root-cutting. See cutting. (Page 86.) 



GLOSSARY. 387 

Rudimentary. Imperfectly developed or in an early state of de- 
velopment. 

Samara. A winged fruit, (e. g. Maple.) 

Saprophyte. A plant which lives upon and obtains its food from 
dead organic matter. 

Sapwood. The outer or latest formed wood of a woody plant. 
(Page 12.) 

Sawing. The two methods used in sawing are termed tangential 
sawing and quarter sawing, q. v. 

Scion. The part inserted in the stock in the various processes 
of graftage. 

Seed. The body containing the embryo plant; the ripened ovule. 

Seedling. In nursery practice a young plant grown from seed 
and not having been transplanted. 

Seeding tree. A tree, sufficiently mature, to produce fruit. 

Seed variety. A variety that comes true from seed. 

Sepal. One of the divisions of the calyx. 

Serrate. Saw-toothed, (e. g. leaves of Balm of Gilead.) 

Sessile. Without stalk. 

Sheath. In pines, the case-like part surrounding the base of the 
needle cluster. 

Shrub. A woody plant with no main stem or trunk; a bush. 

Silver grain. Bands or plates of medullary rays exposed radi- 
ally on longitudinal section. 

Simple. Composed of one part; not compound. 

Sinuate. Strongly wavy. 

Sinus. An indentation. 

Solar- pit. (Page 8g.) 

Spatulate. Shaped like a spatula; broadly rounded at the apex; 
tapering toward the base. 

Species. A division of a genus, the plants of which seem to be 
derived from an immediate common ancestor. 

Species class. A group of trees of the same species made in for- 
est survey. 

Specific gravity. Weight compared with distilled water at 4 
degrees Centigrade. Where used here with reference to 
wood it refers to absolutely dry wood unless otherwise 
noted. 

Spike. A simple dense raceme-like inflorescence with flowers 
sessile or nearly so. 

26 



388 GLOSSARY. 

Spore. A reproductive body, commonly applied to those borne 

by plants that do not produce seed. Analogous but not 

homologous to a seed. 
Stamen. Pollen-bearing organ of a flower. 
Staminate. Said of flowers bearing stamens, but no pistils. 

Often used synonymously with male. 
Stem. The main axis or one of the main axes of a plant. It 

may be underground or aerial. Commonly used in place 

of petiole, pedicel and peduncle. 
Sterile. Not fertile; not able to reproduce. 
Stigma. The part of the pistil upon which the pollen falls and 

germinates. 
Stipule. A leaf appendage at the base of the blade or petiole; 

not always present, (e. g. Black Willow.) 
Stock plants. Plants used to propagate from. 
Stoma, (pi. Stomata) Breathing pores of leaves. 
Stratification. A method of storing seeds with alternate layers of 

some other material, as sand or leaves. (Page 76.) 
Strobilus or Strobile. A cone. (e. g. Pine, Lycopodium.) 
Stumpagc. The standing timber. 

Style. The stalk, if present, that joins the stigma to the ovary. 
Sucker. A shoot from an underground root or stem; often ap- 
plied to an adventitious shoot above ground. 
Sunscald. (Page 112.) 
Superior. Applied to ovary when attached on a level or above 

the other parts of the flower, (e. g. Ohio Buckeye.) 
Surveyor general. The officer whose duty it is to measure or to 

direct the measurement of logs and lumber. 
Tangential saiving. The common way of cutting logs by which 

the boards on each side of the center board are sawed by 

a cut that is tangent to the annual rings. This method 

serves to bring out the grain of wood most conspicuously. 
Tap-root. A central root running deep into the soil. 
Tensile strength. The force which resists breaking or drawing 

asunder. 
Tent-caterpillars. Caterpillars that build silky-like tents on trees 

and other plants. 
Thorn. A hardened sharp-pointed branch. 
Tomentose. Clothed with matted woolly hair. 
Top-worked. Said of trees that are grafted or budded at some 

distance above the ground. 



GLOSSARY. 389 

Transit. A surveyor's instrument for measuring angles, etc. 
Transpiration. The process by which water is taken up by the 

roots of plants and given off to the air through the leaves 

and branches. 
Tree. A perennial woody plant with a single stem which from 

natural tendencies generally divides into two or more 

branches at some distance from the ground. 
Trcc-croi^n. That part of a tree that is branched, forming a 

head. 
Tree-digger. Ordinarily a plow-like imi)lenient having a sharp 

knife-like blade that is drawn through the soil by a team 

and cuts the roots oflf the trees at a distance from the base 

of the tree-trunk. Where large quantities of trees are to 

be dug this is a most important implement. There are 

various kinds; one style cuts on both sides of the row at 

one time. 
Tri. Prefix meaning three. 

Triangidatiou. The method of survey b\' dividing into triangles. 
Tripod. A three-legged support for an instrument. 
Turgid. Distended; applied to leaves and other parts when 

filled with water. 
Umbel. An umbrella-like form of inflorescence, (e. g. flower 

clusters of Caraway. Parsnip.) 
UniscxKal. Bearing either male or female organs, not both. (e. 

g. flowers of Willows.) 
Variety. A distinct and valuable variation from the original. 
Valve. One of the parts of a dehiscent pod. 
Valvatc. Opening by valves. 
Volume. Amount or m?.ss of a tree or log. 
Water capital. The entire water of the earth. 
Jl'eed. A plant out of place, a generally troublesome plant, not 

of any appreciable economic value. 
Whorl. Applied to leaves when arranged in a circle around the 

stem. 
IVings of a leaf. The expanded portion; the blade. 
IVindbrcah. A single row or belt of trees, which serves as a 

protection from wind. 
Wood. The hardened tissue of a stem. A forest. 
Working plan. A pre-arrangement of the method of growing 

and harvesting a forest crop of a particular tract. 



INDEX. 



Orders and families in small caps; genera in heavy face; synonyms 
in italics. Figures in parenthesis indicate illustrations. 

Note.— The trees embraced in the I,ist of the More Important Trees of the 
United States are not indexed — see list page 369. 



Abies, 227. 

balsamea, (228), 227. 

concolor, 229. 
Acacia — False, 333. 

— Thieethotn, 329. 
Accretion, 139. 
Accretion borer, (151), 150. 

ACERACE.E, 835. 

Acer, 335. 

Acer dasycarpum, 340. 

uegundo, (347), 348. 

pennsylvanicum, 346. 

platanoides, (339), 338. 

platanoides reitenbachii, 340. 

platanoides schwedlerii, 340. 

rubrum, (344), 343. 

saccharinum, (341), 340. 

saccharin II m, 336. 

saccharum, (337), 336. 

spicatum, 345. 

tartaricum, 346. 

tartaricum ginnale, 346. 
Act for prevention of forest fires in 

Minnesota, 193. 
Actual income, 187. 
.^sculus, 348. 

glabra, (350), 351. 

hippocastanum, 349. 
Agaricus melleus, (113), 112. 
Alarm about destruction of forests, 

184. 
Alkali soils. Occurrence, 25. 
Almondleaf Willow, (252), 251. 
Alder— Hoary, 280. 

— Speckled, 280. 
Alnus incana, (281), 280. 
Altimeter, 133. 



Atnelanchier, 317. 

alnifolia, 318. 

canadensis, 317. 

canadensis abovalis, 318. 
AmericaTi Aspen, 260. 
A merican Elm, 299. 
Americaii Larch, 214. 
American Linden, 353. 
American Moiintain Ash. 312. 
Angle mirror, 147. 
Angle prism, 147. 
Annual rings, 11, 126. 
Antiseptics, 180. 
Arborvita:, (231), 230. 

— Douglas Golden, 233. 

— Pyramidal, 233. 

— Siberian, 232. 

Areas of Circles, Table of, 136. 
Ash— Black, (363), 361. 

— Green, 361. 

— Hoop, 362. 

— Mountain, 312. 

— Elderleaf Mountain, (315), 314. 

— Red, 360. 

— Swamp, 362. 

— White, (359), 358. 
Ashleaf Maple, 348. 
Aspect, Effect on growth, 26. 
Aspen, (261), 260. 
Assimilation, 17. 
Austrian Pine, (212), 211. 
Ax and Saw, 72. 

Balm of Gilead, (263). 262. 

— Hairy, 264. 
Balsam, 227. 
Balsam Fir, (228), 227. 
Bark, 12. 



INDEX. 



391 



Basal area, 134. 
Basket U'illous, 247. 
Basswood, (354), 3.53. 

— European, 3oi). 
Baummesser, 149. 
Beech— Blue, (285), 284. 

— WaL't; 284. 
Beetree, 353. 
Betulace.u, 274. 
Betula, 274. 

alba, 27t5. 

alba pendula laciniata, 277. 

lenta, 27«. 

lutea, (279), 2:8. 

nigra, 277. 

papyrifera,(275), 274. 

BiGNONIACE.E, 364. 

BiGNONiA Family, 364. 
Birch— Caxoi?, 274. 

— Cutleaf Weeping, 276. 

— European White, 276. 

— Cray, 278. 

— Paper, (275), 274. 

— Red, 277. 

— River, 277. 

— Sweet, 278. 

— White. 274. 

— Yellow, (279), 278. 
Birch Family, 274. 
Bird Cherry, 322. 
Birds, Injuries from, 106. 
Bitternut Hickory, (244), 245. 
Black Ash, (;}{53), 362. 
Black Cherry, (325), 322. 
Black Ha-u\ 366. 

Black Knot, 326. 

Black Locust, 329, 333. 

Black Oa-t. 297. 

Black Pine. 211. 

Black Poplar, 270. 

Black Spruce, (219), 218. 

Black Walnut, (239), 238. 

Black Willow, (2.50), 251. 

Blowing out of small seedlings, 56. 

Blue Beech, (211), 212. 

Blue Spruce, 221. 

B. M., 144. 

Board Measure, 144. 

Bolle Poplar, 273. 

Borers, 105. 

Boucherie process, 181. 



Bounty for tree planting, 194. 
Boxelder, (347). 348. 
Breed'? Weeder, Use of, 49. 
Broken liranches, 112. 
Browsing of deer, 123. 
Buckeye Family, 348. 
Buckthorn, (352). 351. 

— English, 351. 
Buckthorn Family, 351. 
Buds. 13. 

Buildings on a Farm, I^ocation of, 

(57), (58), 56. 
Bull Pine, (208), 207. 
Burnettizing, 182. 
Bur Oak, (294), 293. 
Bur Ifhite Oak, 293. 
Butternut, (241), 240. 
Calipers, 148. 
Callou.sing, 89. 
Canoe Birch, 274. 
Cants, 169. 

Capital in wood, 186. 
Capital stock, 187. 
Caprifoliace.k, 366. 
Carolina Poplar, 265. 
Carpentry, 105. 
Carpinus, 284. 

caroliniana, (285), 284. 
Carya alba, 243. 

amara, 245. 
Castanea, 286. 

dentata, (287), 286. 
Catalpa, 364. 

bignonioides, 366. 

speciosa, (365), 364. 
Cattle, Injuries from, 106. 
Cedar— Red, 233. 

— White, 230. 
Celtis, 306. 

occidentalis, (307), 306. 
Certincnsis Poplar, 273. 
Charring timber, 179. 
Chemical pulp, 167. 
Cherry— ^;n/. 322. 

— Black, (325), 324. 

— Choke (327), 326. 

— Pigeon, 322. 

— Pin, 322. 

— Rum, 324. 

— Wild Black, 324. 

— Wild Red, (323), 322. 



392 



INDEX. 



Chestnut, (287), 286. 

Chief fire warden, 193. 

Chinook of the West, 37. 

Chloride of zinc, 182. 

Choke Cherry, (327), 326. 

Circle.s, areas of, 136. 

Clear plantings, 51. 

Climbers, 152. 

Coal-tar, 179. 

Coatings for wood, 179. 

Coffeetree, (332), 331. 

Colorado Blue Spruce, 221. 

Coloring matter of wood, 176. 

Color of wood, a test of durability, 176. 

Common I^ocust, 333. 

Common Juniper, 235. 

Common Golden Willow, 255. 

Compass, 147. 

Conifers, raising from seed, 80. 

Conservation, Elements of, 39. 

Cooperage, 166. 

Coppice, 68. 

Cork Elm, 301. 

Cotton batting, 123. 

Cottonwood, (267), 265. 

— Goldenleaf, 269. 

— Narrowleaf, 265. 

— Seedlings, 77. 

— Yield, 130. 
Covering of tree seeds, 66. 
Crab— Iowa, (313), 312. 

— Ifild, 312. 

— Wester, t,Zl2. 
Crataegus, 319. 

puncata, (320), 319. 
Creosote, 181. 
Creosoting process, 181. 
Crooked trees. Treatment of, 99. 
Cross-cut sawing, 168. 
Cross-sectional area, 132. 
Cross staff head, 147. 
Cubic feet in cord of firewood, 138. 
Cubic feet, conversion into B. M., 138. 
Cultivation, 55, 60. 
Curing wood, 178. 

Curtis, Production of a hot wind, 46. 
Cutleaf Weeping Birch, 277. 
Cutleaf Maple, 343. 
Cuttings, 86. 

Bunch of Willow, (87), 87. 

Cultivation, 88. 



Cuttings, Form and size, 86. 

Planting, 87. 

In solar pit, (89), 88. 

.Source of, 80. 

Time of planting, 88. 
Cutting of timber, Time, 176. 
Damping off of conifers, 81. 
Dead oil, 181. 
Deal ivood, 209. 
Decay in wood, 175. 
Depth to cover seeds, 82. . 
Destruction of forests, 184. 
Diameter accretion, 131. 
Distillation of wood, 167. 
Dissipation, Elements of, 33. 
Distance between trees, 50. 
Distance of trees from buildings, etc., 

48. 
Distribution of seeds, 16. 
Distribution of water, 41. 
Dominion Experiment Station in As- 

siniboia, 37. 
Double Spruce, 218. 
Douglas Golden Arborvitse, 233. 
Douglas Fir, 225. 
Douglas Spruce, (226), 225. 
Drouth, injuries from, 111. 
Dry rot in wood, 177. 
Dry seeds, 78. 

Durability of fence posts, 178. 
Durability of wood, 175. 
Dwarf Juneberry, 318. 
Dwarf Juniper, (235), 235. 
Diuarf Mountain Pine, 211. 

— Pine, 211. 

Eastern slope. Effect on growth, 26. 
El-eagnace.e, 856. 
Elaeagnus, 356. 

angustifolia, (357), 356. 
Elderleaf Mountain A.sh, (315), 314. 
"S^va.— American, 299. 

— Cork, (302), 301. 

— Moose, 303. 

— Red, 303. 

— Rock, 301. 

— Slippery, (304), 303. 
~ Water, 299. 

— White, (300), 299. 
Elm Family, 299. 
Elm Tree, Pruned, 103. 
Engelmann Spruce, 221. 



INDEX. 



393 



English liiick/hoiti. 351. 

Estimating standing timber, 143. 

European Basswood, 356. 

European Larch, (215), 216. 

European Linden, 356. 

European .Mountain Ash, 816. 

European White Birch, 276. 

European systems of forest manage- 
ment, 188. 

Evaporation from soil, 3-1. 

Evaporation in winter, 19. 

Evergreen seed bed. Si. 

Evergreens, .Sowing seed, 80. 

Evergreens, Transplanting, 94. 

Fagace.*:, 286. 

False Acacia, 333. 

Farm machinery, 166. 

Farm woodlot, 72. 

Fence Posts. Table of Durabilitj' of, 
178. 

Fetid Buckeye, 351. 

Fighting Fires, 120. 

Files, 152. 

Fir— Balsam, (228i, 227. 

— Douglas, 22 -. 

— Red, 225. 

— Silver, 229. 

— White. 229. 
Firebreak on sand dune, 119. 
Firebreaks, 118. 
Fire-fall, 116. 

Fire law in Minnesota, 193. 
Fireproof wood, 182. 
Fires in forests, 113. 

Causes, 117. 

Crown, 114. 

Prevention, 117. 

Spring, 116. 

Summer and autumn, 116. 

.Surface, 114, 115, 120. 

Underground, 114, 120. 
Fire wardens, 193. 
Flowers, 15. 

Foehn of .Switzerland, 37. 
Fogs and clouds, 42. 
Food formation, 17. 
Fore.-t, The, 21. 
Forest and pasture, 122. 
Forest economics, 184. 
Forest fires, 113. 
Forest fires. Notable, 121. 



Forest floor, 24, 115. 
Forest industries of Minnesota, 185. 
Forest influences, 28. 
on disposal of water supplies, 33. 
on fogs and clouds, 42. 
on precipitation, 32. 
on water supplies, 29. 
on wind and hail storms, 42. 
Forest mensuration, 132. 
Forest planting, 66. 
Forest problems in Minnesota, 153. 
Forest protection, 104. 
Forest-pulled trees, 92. 
Forest regeneration and treatment, 

60. 
Forest reservations and national 

parks, 191. 
Forest tteatraent, 60. 
Forest trees of the United States, 269. 
Forestry requires capital, 186. 
Forest, Virgin, 60. 
Forest weed, 70. 

Forests, Wind-breaking power of, 35. 
Fraxinus, 358. 
americana, (359), 358. 
lanceolata, 361. 
nigra, (3(53), 362. 
pennsylvanica, 360. 
pubescens, 360. 
sambiici folia, 362. 
viridis, .361. 
Freezing and thawing, 107. 
Frost cracks, 109. 
Froit cracks in Sugar Maple, 110. 
Frost, Injuries from, 108. 
Frost-hardy trees, 108. 
Frost-tender trees, 108. 
Fruit, 16. 

Fuel woods of Minnesota, 170 
value of woods, 170. 
values, table of, 172. 
Fungi in wood, 175. 
Fungus, Shelf, (175), 175. 
Fungus diseases, 112, 175. 
Gathering seeds, 75. 
Germination of seeds. 75. 
Girdling by mice, 105. 
Glauber salts, 167. 
Gleditsia, 328. 

triacanthos, i330), 329. 
Glossary, 378. 



394 



INDEX. 



Glossyleaf Willow, (258), 257. 
Golden ArborvitcE, 164. 
Goldenleaf Cottonwood, 269. 
Golden Willow — Common, 255. 

— Russian, 256. 
Gophers, 113. 

Government supervision of forests in 

Germany, 190. 
Grades of nursery stock, 98. 
Graftage, 90. 
Gray Birch, 278. 
Gray Pine, 205. 
Green Ash, 361. 

Green Ash seedlings. Bunch of, 92. 
Grindstone, 152. 
Group method, 64. 
Grove, 47. 

Growing stock of a forest, 137. 
Growth of trees an index to value of 

laud, 23. 
Growth on muskegs, 23. 
Gytnnocladus, 331. 

canadensis, 331. 

dioicus, (a32), 331. 
Hack berry, (307), 306. 
Hackmatack, 214. 

Hail storms. Forest influences on, 42. 
Hairy Balm of Gilead, 264. 
Hand ax, 152. 
Hard Maple, 336. 
Hardy Catalpa, 364. 
Haw, Dotted, (320), 319. 
Heartwood, 12. 

Coloration, 12. 
Heaving out by frost, 107. 
Heavy-wooded Pine, 207. 
Heeling-in, 97. 
Height accretion, 133. 
Height classes, 137. 
Heights of one-year-old seedlings. 

Table of, 83. 
Hemlock, 224. 
Hicoria, 242. 

minima, (244), 245. 

ovata, 243. 
Hickory— Bitternut, (244), 245. 

— Shagbark, 243. 

— Shellbark, 243. 

— Swamp, 245. 
Hinckley fire, 114, 122. 

HiPPOCASTANACE.-K, 348. 



Honey I^ocust, (330), 329. 
Honeysuckle Family, 366. 
Hoop Ash,W)2. 
Hop Hornbeam, 282. 
Hornbeam, (283), 282. 
Hornbeam, 284. 
Horse Chestnut, 349. 
Hot winds, 45. 
Hypsometer, (149-150), 148. 
Impregnation of Beech wood, 180. 
Improvement cuttings, 71. 
Improvement of land in forests, 42. 
Improving the woodlot, 72. 
Inarching, 90. 
Income from forests, 187. 
Income from game preserves, 189. 
Increasing value of forests, 187. 
Influence of forests, 28. 
Injury from late spring frosts, 108. 
Injuries to trees, 104. 
Insects, Injuries from, 104. 
Instruments u.sed in forest mensura- 
tion, 147-152. 
Interception of rainfall, 33. 
Interception of water in forests, 33. 
Intolerant. 22. 
Investments in timber, 128. 
Investments, Profits from, 128. 
Iowa Crab, (313), 312. 
Iron railroad ties, 180. 
Ironwood, 282. 

Jack Pine, (206), 205. 
Jack Pine, Stand of, 137. 
Jacob stafT, 149. 
Joinery, 166. 

JUGLANDACE.E, 237. 

Juglans, 237. 

cinerea, (2411,240. 

nigra, (239), 238. 
Juneberry, 317. 

— D'warf, 318. 
Juniper — Commo?i, 235. 

— Dwarf, (235), 235. 

— Red, 166. 

— Trailing:, 235 
Juniperus, 233. 

communis, (235), 235. 
virginiana, (234), 233. 

Kentucky Coffeetree, 331. 
Kerf, 146. 



INDEX. 



395 



King's experiments with windbreaks, 

36, 37. 
Knisely's experiments on evaporation 

from trees in winter, 19. 
Kyanizing process, 181. 
I,and broken by dragging logs, (i3. 
tiSLTch— American, 214. 

— European, (215), 216. 
Large tooth Aspen, 262. 
I,arix, 213. 

aniet icaua, 21-1. 

europea, 215. 

occidentalis, .S72. 

lariciiia, 214. 
Late spring frosts, 108. 
Laurelleaf Willow, 257. 
l,aw. Fire, in Minnesota, 193. 
Layers, 89. 
Leather board, 167. 
Leaves, 14. 
Leaves on conifers. Time they remain 

on trees, 15. 
Leguminos.i:, 328. 
Level. 147. 
Lice, 105. 

Life history of mature tree, 126. 
Light demanding trees, 21. 
Limber Pine, 202. 
Lime Whitewash, 179. 
Linden — A merica n . 353. 

— European, 356. 
Linden Family, 353. 
Live fence posts, 160. 
Log rule, 152. 
Location of buildings, 56. 
Locust, (334), 333. 

— Black, 333. 

— Common, 333. 

— Honey, (330), 329. 

— Yello-w, 333. 
Lombardy Poplar, 270. 

Lumber indu.stry in Minnesota, 185. 
Maple— W,y/«/,-fl/, 348. 

— Cutleaf, 343. 

— Hard, 336. 

— Mountain, 345. 

— Norway (339), 3.38. 

— Red, (344), 343. 

— Reitenbach, 340. 

— Rock, 336. 

— Scarlet, 343. 



Maple — Schwetller, 340. 

— Silver, (341), 340. 

— • Silverleaf, 340 

— So/I. 340. 

— Striped, 346. 

— Sugar, (337), 336. 

— Suamp, 343. 

— Tartarian, 346. 

— H'7iife, 340. 

— Wier's Cutleaf, 343. 
Maple Family, 335. 
Marking pins, 147. 
Mass accretion, 139, 140. 
Measurement of growing stock, 1.S7. 
Measurement of logs and lumber, 144. 
Measurement of single trees, 132. 
Mechanical condition of land in for- 
ests, 23. 

Mechanical pulp, 167. 

Men employed in lumbering indus- 
tries, 185. 

Methods of .sawing, 168. 

Mice, 105. 

Mineral substances, 18. 

Mining, 166. 

Minne.sota state forest reserves, 192. 

Minnesota state forestry board, 193. 

Miramichi fire, 121. 

Mirror hj'psometer, (150), 148. 

Mixed plantings, 51. 

Mixed plantings, List of trees for, 53. 

Afoose Elm, 303. 

Moosewood, 346. 

Morace^*:. 308. 

Morus, 308. 
alba tartarica, (310), 309. 
rubra, 308. 

Mossy -Clip Oak, 293. 

Mound planting, 68. 

Mountain Ash, 312. 

— American, 312. 

— Elderleaf, (315), 314. 

— European, 316. 

— Oakleaf, 317. 

— Weeping, 317. 
Mountain Maple, 345. 
Mountain Spruce, 221. 
Mulberr>-— Red, 308. 

— Russian, (310), 309. 

— Tea's Weeping, 311. 
Mulberry Family-, 308. 



396 



INDEX. 



Mulching trees, 101. 
Muskegs, Growth on, 23. 
Naiinybeny, 366. 
Napoleon Willow, 259. 
Narrowleaf Cottonwood, 265. 
National parks, 191. 
Negundo acerotdes, 348. 
Netlletree, 306. 
Normal growing stock, 187. 
Normal income, 187. 
Northern Scrub-Pine, 205. 
Northern slope, effect on growth, 26. 
Norway Maple, (339), 338. 
Norway Pine, 202. 

Norway Pine crowded and open- 
grown, 129. 
Norway .Spruce, (223), 222. 
Younggrowth in Germany, (190). 
Notable forest fires, 121. 

Miramichi, 121. 

Pe.shtigo, 121. 

Michigan, 121. 

Hinckley, 122. 
Nursery practice, 91. 
Nursery, 91. 

Soil and cultivation, 91. 

Work and practice, 91. 
Nursery stock. Grades of, 91. 
O^'^— Black, 289, 297. 

— Bur (294a 293. 

— Bur, White, 293. 

— Mossy-Cup, 293. 

— Red, (296), 295. 

— Scarlet, (298), 297. 

— White, (290), 289. 

— Swamp, (292), 291. 
Oak Family, 286. 
Oakleaf Mountain Ash, 317. 
Odors of decaying wood, 175. 
Ohio Buckeye, (350), 351. 

Oil paints, 179. 
Oleace^;, 358. 
Oleaster Family, 356. 
Olive Family, 358. 
Osier Willows, 247. 
Ostrya, 282. 

virginiana, (283), 282. 
Paper Birch, (275), 274. 
Paper pulp, 167. 
Paraboloid, 132. 
Pasturing cattle in woodlands, 106. 



Pea Family, 328. 
Peshtigo fire, 121. 
Picea, 216. 

alba, 216. 

canadensis (217), 216. 

engelmanni, 221. 

excelsa, (223), 222. 

j-oung growth in Germany, (190). 

mariana, (219), 218. 

nigra, 218. 

parryana, 221. 

pungens, 221. 
Peachleaf WiUo7v, 251. 
Pigeon Cherry, 322. 
Pin Cherry, 322. 
PINACE.E, 199. 

Pine, 199. 

— Austrian, (212), 211. 

— Black, -IW. 

— Bull, 207. 

— Dwarf, 211. 

— Dzvarf Mountain, 211. 

— Gray, 205. 

— Heavy-ll'ooded, 207. 

— Jack, (206), 205. 

— Limber, 202. 

— Northern Scrub, 205. 
- Norway, 202. 

— Red. (203), 202. 

— Rock, (208), 207. 

— Scotch, (210), 209. 

— IFestern Yello2U, 207. 

— ll'estern White , 202. 

— Weymouth, 199. 

— White, (200), 199. 

Pine cuttings after being burned 

over, 67. 
Pine Family, 199. 
Pinus, 199. 

banksiana, 205. 

divaricata, (206), 205. 

flexilis, 202. 

laricio austriaca, (212), 211. 

montana pumila, (213), 211. 

niughus, 211. 

ponderosa .scopulorum, (208), 207. 

resino.sa, (203), 202. 

strobus, (200), 199. 

sylvestris, (210>,209. 
Pit, Storing seeds in, 76. 
Plans for home grounds, 56. 



INDEX. 



397 



Planting, Methods of, 54. 

Planting seedlings. Successive .steps 

in, 9(5. 
Planting to renew timber growth, (56. 
Plowrightia niorbosa, 326. 
Plum, Wild, 321. 
Pocket Gopher, 106. 
Pocket Lens, 150. 
Pollarding, (5)S. 
Poplar Aspen, (261), 260. 

— Balm of Gilead, (263), 262. 

— Black, 270. 

— Bolle, 273. 

— Certincnsis, 273. 

— Largetooth Aspen, 262. 

— IvOmbardy, 270. 

— Silverleaf, 271. 

— Snowy, 271. 

— White, (272), 270. 
Poplar, 260. 

Popple, 260. 
Populus, 259. 

alba, (272), 270. 

alba bolleana, 273. 

alba canescens, 273. 

alba nivea, 271. 

angustifolia. 265. 

argriilea, 271. 

balsamifera. (263), 2(52. 

balsamifera candicans, 264. 

balsamifera intermedia, 264. 

bal.samifera latitolia. 264. 

balsamifera viminalis, 264. 

crtiiiieusis, 273. 

Clispa, 264. 

deltoides, (267), 2(55. 

deltoides aiirea, 269. 

dudlryi. 2(i4. 

grandidouta, 262. 

laurifolia. 273. 

lauiifolia, 2(54. 

lindleyana, 264. 

nigra, 270. 

nigra italica, 270. 

nolesti, 2(35. 

pyramidaJis sitaveolens, 264. 

sa/in/o/ia. 264. 

siberica pyyaviidalis, 264. 

tremuloides. (261), 260. 

van gei tii, 269. 

wobsky, 265. 



Possibilities of yield of our forest 

area, 185. 
Prairie planting, 47. 
Prairies, Why treeless, 43. 
Pressler's tables of relative diameters, 

141. 
Price of fuel, 184. 
Printing paper, 167. 
Profits from timber, 128. 
Propagation, 73. 

by division, 73. 
Protection from windbreaks, 41. 
Protection to buildings, 48. 
Protection to crops by windbreaks, 48. 
Pruning. 97. 

Directions for, 98. 

of forest trees, 69. 

Purpose of, 97. 

Time for, 98. 
Prunus, 321. 

americana, 3-1. 

demissa, 328. 

pennsylvanica, (323), 322. 

nigra, 321. 

serotina (325), 324. 

virginiaiia, (327), 326. 
Pseudotsuga, 225. 

doiiglaiii, 225. 

taxifolia, (226), 225. 
Pyramidal ArborvitEe, 232. 
Pyrus, 311. 

americana, 312. 

aucuparia, 316. 

aucuparia pendula, 317. 

coronaria, 312. 

hybrida, 317. 

ioensis, '313), 312. 

sambucifolia, (315), 314. 
Quaihicr Aspi'u, 260. 
(Juarter-sawiiig, 168. 
Quercus, 288. 

alba, (290), 289. 

coccinea, (298), 297. 

macrocarpa, (294), 293. 

platanoides, (292), 291. 

rubra, (296), 295. 

suher. 289. 

velutina, 297. 
Rabbits, Injuries from, 105. 
Rainfall, height of water table in the 
Ian 1, 44. 



398 



INDEX. 



Raising coniferous trees, 81. 

Rate of growth, 125, 139, 150. 

Rate of increase in timber, 125. 

Red Ash, 360. 

Red Birch, 277. 

Red Cedar, 283. 

Red Cherry, 322. 

Red Elm, 303. 

Red Fir, 225. 

Red Juniper, (234), 233. 

Red Maple, (344), 343. 

Red Mulberry, 308. 

Red Oak, (296), 295. 

Red Pine, (203), 202. 

Regeneration, 62. 

b3' artificial seeding, 65. 

by natural seeding, 62, 66. 

by planting cuttings, 68. 

by planting seedlings, 66. 

by sprouts and suckers, 68. 
Reitenbach Maple, 340. 
Relation between trees and soils, 23. 
Reseeding, Natural, 66. 
Rest period of plants, 19. 

RHAMNACE,*;, 351. 

Rhatnnus, 351. 

catharticus, (.352), 351. 
Ripening of wood, 19. 
River Birch, 277. 
Robinia, 333. 

pseudacacia, (334), 333. 
Rock Elm, 301. 
Rock Maple, 336. 
Rock Pine, 207. 
Root growth. Extent of. 13. 
Root formation, (Figure 2), 13. 
Roots, 12. 

Roots on a forest grown Elm, 93. 
Rosace.*;, 311. 
Rose Family, 311. 
Rotation, 69. 
Rol in wood, 175. 
Royal Willow, 256. 
Rum Cherry, 324. 
Run-off of Water, 41. 
Russell's experiment. Effect of wind 

on evaporation, 34. 
Russian— Mulberry, (310), 309. 

— Olive, (357), 356. 
Salic AC E.«;, 246. 



Salix, 246. 
acuti folia, 257. 
alba, (254), 253. 
alba britzensis, 256. 
alba regalis, 256. 
alba vittellina, (255), 256. 
amygdaloides, (252), 251. 
lauvifolia, 257. . 

lucida, (258), 257. 
napoleonis, 259. 
nigra, (250), 251. 
pentandra, 257. 
purpurea, 249. 
pendula, 259. 
regalis, 257. 
Sample acre, 137. 
Sample tree, 140., 
Sand dunes, 123. 
Sapwood, 12. 
Savin, 233. 
Saw, 72. 

Sawing, Methods of, 168. 
Sawflies, Injuries from, 104. 
Scaling, 144. 
Scarlet— Tl/a//^, 343. 

— Oak, (298), 297. 
Schwedler Maple, 340. 
Scotch Fir, 207. 
Scotch Pine, 207. 
Scratcher, 152. 
Scritmer's Rule, 145. 
Scrub Pine, Northern, 205. 
Second growth, 20. 
Seed, The, 16. 

Evergreen, bed, 81. 
Seeding of timber lands, 66. 
Seeding trees, 66. 
Seedlings, 92. 
Green Ash, 92. 
variations, 75. 
Height of one-year-old, 83. 
Seeds, 73. 
Amount to use, 82. 
Classified, 77. 
Coniferous tree, 77, 79. 
Covering, 82. 
Distribution of, 16. 
Dry, 78. 

Fleshy covered, 78. 
Gathering, 75. 
Germination of, 75. 



INDEX. 



3S)9 



Seeds, Leguminous tree, 79, 86. 

Nut, 79, 8fi. 

Ripening in August, 78. 

Ripening in spring and early sum- 
mer, 77. 

Sources of, 73. 

Sowing, 82. 

Stratification of, 76. 

Variations from, 75. 
Seed variations, 75. 
Seed years, 63. 
Selection method, 63. 
Serviceberrj', 317. 
Servicetree — Longleaf, 318. 

— Western, 318. 
Servicetne, 317. 
Shade-enduring trees, ■?2. 
Shagbark Hickory, 243. 
Shapes of trees, 16. 
Sheepberry, (367), 366. 
She 1 1 bark Hickory, 243. 
Shelterbelt, 47. 
Shelterbelts, Plans of. 57. 
Shining ll'illo-o, 257. 
Shipbuilding, 166. 
Siberian Arborvitte, 2.32. 
Silver Fir, 229. 
Silver Grain, 168. 
Silvrrlea/Maplf, 340. 
Silver Maple, (341), 340. 
Silverleaf Poplar, 271. 
Silver Poplar, 273. 
Silver Spruce, 221. 
Size of trees, 54. 

Sleet storms, Injuries from, 108. 
Sleet storm. Trees after, 109. 
Slippery Elm, (304), 303. 
Slope, Effect on growth, 26. 
Snow crust, Injuries from, 110. 
Snowy Poplar, 271. 
Soft Maple. 340. 
Soft Maple, pruned and unpruned, 

102. 
Soil conditions, 22. 
Soil, Improvement of, in woodlands, 

18. 
Soils, Alkali, 25. 
Soils, Washing of, 24. 
Solar pit, 89. 
Sources of seeds, 73. 
Southern slope, effect on growth, 26. 



Sowing seed, 82. 
Specific gravities, Table of, 170. 
Spring frosts, Injuries from, 108. 
Spring growth of wood, 18. 
Spruce— Black, (219), 218. 

— Blue, 221. 

— Colorado Blue, 221. 

— Double, 218. 

— Douglas, (226), 225. 

— Engelmann, 221. 

— Norway, (223), 222. 

— Silver, 221 . 

— White, (217), 216. 

— li-kile, 221. 

State bounty for tree planting, 194. 

Steel chain, 147. 

Steel tape, 147. 

Storing seeds, 78. 

Straightening streams with willows, 

162. 
Stratification, 76. 
Street trees, 92. 

Distance apart, 100. 

Kinds to plant, 100. 

Mulching, 101. 

Planting, 101. 

Protection, 103. 

Pruning, 102. 

Setting, 101. 

Success with, 100. 

Watering, 102. 
Strip method, 63. 
Subsoil, 24. 

Succes.sion of tree growth, 60. 
Sugarberry. 306. 
Sulphite process, 180. 
Sunscald, 112. 

Small dead twigs a protection 
against, 70. 
Sunscalded Soft Maple and Basswood, 

(111), 111. 
.Surveyor general of logs and lumber, 

144. 
Suscutanberry, 318. 
Swamp Ash, 362. 
Swamp Hickory, 245. 
Swamp Maple, 343. 
Sweet Birch, 278. 
Tables- 
Areas of circles, 136. 

Diameter growth. 143. 



400 



INDEX. 



Tables- 
Durability of fence posts, 175. 

Height growth, 83. 

Height of one-year-old seedlingrs, 83. 

I,ength of time leaves of conifers 
are persistent, 15. 

Percentage of the logs, 146 

Pressler's relative diameters, 141. 

Scribner's Rule, 145. 

Specific gravities and fuel values, 
170. 
Transpiration, 17. 
Tacamahac, 262. 
Tallyboard, 147. 
Tallyman, 147. 
Tamarack. 214. 
Tangential sawing, 168. 
Tartarian Maple, 346. 
Taxes on timber lands, 189. 
Tendency to perpetuate qualities, 74. 
Tensile strength of wood compared 

with iron, 164. 
Tent caterpillars, 104. 
Thinning, 55, 70. 
Threethorn Acacia, 329. 
Through and through sawing, 168. 
Thuja, 230. 

occidentalis, (231), 230. 

occidentalis aurea, 233. 

occidentalis fastigiata, 232. 

occidentalis pyiaiiiidalis, 232. 

occidentalis wareana, 232. 

occidentalis sibirica, 232. 
Tilia, 353. 

americana, (354), 3-53. 

platyphyllos, 356. 

vulgaris, 356. 
Tiliacese, 853. 
Timber famine. Possibility of a, in 

Minnesota, 184. 
Timber lands. Management of, 186. 
Timber lands. Taxes on, 189. 
Toadstool root fungus, 112. 
Tolerant, 22. 
Trailing Juniper, 235. 
Transit, 147. 
Transpiration, 17, 38. 
Transplanting, 92. 

evergreens, 94. 

Time of, 94. 
Transplants, 92. 



Treatment of crooked trees, 99. 
Tree, The, 11. 

Tree claim, A good, (Figure 4), 52. 
Tree growth, 17. 
Trees grown from seeds, 73. 
Tree growth affected by light condi 
tions, 21. 

Influences of a, 28. 
Tree planting, 47. 
Tree planting on prairies, 47. 
Trees for mixed plantings, I,ist of, 53. 
Trees protect one another, 22. 

Shape of, 16. 
Triangulation, 132. 
Tsuga, 224. 

canadensis, 224. 
Ulmace.e, 299. 
Ulmus, 299. 

americana, (300), 2£9. 

fulva, 303. 

pubescens, ^304),303. 

racemosa, (302), 301. 
Undergrowth in forests, 24. 
Unproductive forest land, 188. 
Uses of wood, 164. 

Value of forest industries of Minne- 
sota, 185. 
Variations from seeds, 75. 
Viburnum, 366. 

lentago, (367), 366. 
Virgin forest, (Figure 7), 61. 
Volume of standing tree, 132. 
Volume of standing timber, 137. 
Volume of felled tree, 134. 
Walnut, Black, (239), 238. 
Walnut Family, 237. 
Washing of soils, 24. 
Waste in forests, 71. 
Water, Amount transpired, 38. 
Water Beech, 284. 
Water capital, Circulating, 30. 
Water capital. Fixed, 30. 
Water discharged by Rhone, 30. 
Water, Distribution of, 31. 
Water Elm, 299. 
Water lost by trees in winter. 

Amount, 19. 
Water supplies. Forest influences on, 

29. 
Water supply in soils, 22. 
Water table in land. Height of, 44 



INDEX. 



401 



Weeping Birch, Cutleaf, 277. 

Weeping Mojintain Ash, 317. 

H'es/rin Ca/a/fia, 304. 

Western Crab, 312. 

Western I.arch, 372. 

Western slope. Effect on growth. 27. 

li'es/ern If/iilePin,: 202. 

IVeslern J 'e!lo:c Pi tie, 207. 

l^Veymoitlh Pine, 199. 

Whetstone. 152. 

White Ash, (359), 358. 

White Hit cli,Tt\. 

Ifhilc C'lia,. 230. 

White Elm, (3C0), 299. 

Ifhile Fit. 229. 

IVIti/e Maple. 340. 

White Oak, (290), 289. 

White Pine, (200J. 199. 

Crowded and then open grown. 
(127). 127. 

Largest cut in Minnesota, 125. 

Uarge.st yield in Minnesota, 125. 

Open grown, (128), 127. 

White Western. 202. 
White Poplar, (272), 271. 
White Spruce. (217;, 216. 
While Spruce, 221. 
Whitewash, 179. 
White Willow, (254), 253. 
White Wood, 353. 
Why prairies are treeless, 43. 
Wier's Cutleaf Maple, 343. 
Wild Black Cherry, 324. 
Wild Crab. 312. 
Wild Plum, 321. 
Wild Red Cherr>% (323), 322. 
Willow— Almondleaf, (252), 251. 

— Black, (250), 251. 

— Common Golden, 255. 

— Glossyleaf, 257. 

— Laurelleaf, 257. 

— Napoleon, 259. 

— .\e7u Atiierican Weepings 259. 

— Osier. 247. 



Willow— iR-ac/i/^ay; 251. 

— Royal, 256. 

— Russian Golden, 256. 

— Sh in ing. 257. 

— White, (254), 253. 

— Wi.sconsin Weeping, (251), 249. 
Willow Family, 246. 

Willow for fuel, 130. 
Willow, Rate of increase, 130. 
Windbreaking power of forests, 36. 
Windbreaks of White Willow, 50. 
Windbreak, White Willow, Injured 

by saw-fly, 104. 
Windbreaks, 47. 

Height of, 49. 

Location of, 48. 

Protection to crops, 48. 

Trees for, 49. 
Wind injuries, 110. 
Winds, Hot, 37-45. 

Wind storms. Forest influences on, 42. 
Wintering acorns and other nuts, 76. 
Winter injuries, 107. 
Wisconsin Weeping Willow, 249. 
Wood and its uses, 164. 
Wood, Durability of, 175. 
Woodenware, 166. 
Woodlot, 72. 
Wood pulp and distillation products, 

167. 
Wood structure, 108. 
Wood working industries of Minne- 

.sota, 185. 
Working plan, 143. 
Woody stem cross section, 11, 
Yearly round of life in a tree, 18. 
Yellow Kirch, (279), 278. 
Yellow Cotlotizvood, 265. 

— Locust, 333. 

— Pine, I Tester n, 202. 
Young foliage eaten by stock. 106. 
Young growth injured in logging, 69. 
Zinc-tannin process, 182. 



iOV' 



\^ 



.oi^;i^ 



JUL ,i6 1902 



1 COPY DEL. roCAT.OlV. 
JUL. i^ 1902 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




